This information is intended to provide the background context of structure and control, within which the curriculum and assessment frameworks are implemented.
General
Article 23 of the Dutch Constitution6 safeguards the freedom of education, which includes:
The Constitution explicitly allows for schools to be established by individuals and groups (in a category known as "bijzondere scholen") to reflect specific religious and philosophical convictions. Any such schools which meet the criteria outlined below are funded on a par with state/public education. To qualify, such schools:
The Dutch education system combines a unified education system, regulated by central laws, with the decentralised administration and devolved management of schools. Overall responsibility for public- and private-sector education lies with the State, represented by the Minister of Education, Culture and Science (who formally consults representatives of teachers, parents and competent authorities of schools, and employers and trade unions) and the legislative power of the Dutch Parliament. The administration and management of primary and secondary schools (general and vocational education) is decentralised. The municipal authorities are the local authorities for all schools in the area. They are also the competent authority (see below) for public-sector schools, while the founding body or association of each private-sector school is the competent authority for that school.11
It is one of the apparent contradictions of Dutch education that denominational and pedagogical freedom and identity co-exist with a strong central policy and regulations which govern teachers' qualifications and conditions of service, funding and spending, control over school leaving examinations (and therefore access to higher education) and inspection.7 However, the constitutional freedom to set up schools and the right to financial parity, have resulted in the creation of parallel public-sector and private-sector (or state subsidised) schools, to which all statutes apply equally. Some two-thirds of students attend a wide variety of private-sector schools which, within the statutory framework, have freedom regarding curricular content, method, material and the appointment of staff who agree with the school's religious or ideological tenets. The private-sector education system comprises: Roman Catholic schools, Protestant schools and 'other', which includes Jewish schools and non-denominational schools organised according to specific ideological or pedagogical principles, for example, Montessori, Dalton, Jenaplan and Steiner.11 Recently a small, but growing number of Muslim and Hindu primary schools have been established.7
Ministry (of Education, Culture and Science)
The Ministry is responsible for the structure and funding of the system, the management of public-sector institutions, inspection and examination procedures and financial aid to students. It determines:
Since the early 1980s, governance and management responsibilities have been devolved to the competent authorities of schools, which have greater accountability to the local community.7
Provinces
The provinces perform supervisory and jurisdictional duties. They supervise the provision of sufficient public- and private-sector primary and secondary education and organise training and adult education activities.11
Local authorities (municipalities)
The municipal authorities have a dual role.
As local authorities for all (public- and private-sector) schools in the area, they:
As competent authorities for public-sector schools they have the responsibilities outlined below.
Competent authorities
The competent authorities for public-sector schools are the municipal authorities and, for private-sector schools, the administration boards, associations or institutions which established them. There are approximately 6,300 competent authorities. The competent authority has responsibility for the governance of the school within the statutory framework in the following areas:
The day-to-day management of primary and secondary schools may be delegated to the headteacher, but ultimate responsibility rests with the competent authority.11
All schools also have a participation council, in which parents can make known their views about the school's policies. Most also have a parents' council or a parents' committee.47
There is a school plan. This provides an insight into the teaching and developmental objectives of the school, the choice of subject matter and teaching methods, the organisation of the school and the way in which student progress is assessed and reported. The school plan is submitted to the Education Inspectorate for its approval.31
The Inspectorate
The Minister of Education, Culture and Science is charged with the inspection of education, which is carried out under his authority by the Education Inspectorate. Since 1993, regulations have been in force which give the Inspectorate maximum autonomy without affecting ministerial responsibility. The Board of the Inspectorate (comprising the Inspector General and three Chief Inspectors) is responsible for the management of the organisation. The Inspectorate has a management headquarters and 12 regional offices.21
The responsibilities of the Inspectorate are:
Legislation passed in 2002 increased the autonomy of the national Inspectorate, by making it more independent and increasing its role from one of purely monitoring education to one which also encompasses contributing to quality improvement in schools. As a result, the Inspectorate now monitors the following aspects of quality:
If, as a result of its monitoring, the Inspectorate concludes that there is a lack of quality in a school, specific areas of improvement are identified and a subsequent inspection visit takes place to ensure that the process of improvement has begun. 56
At the local level, institutional self-assessment is becoming increasingly important, particularly in view of the fact that parents are increasingly aware of the standards of education provided in individual schools. 56
Further information on the role of the Inspectorate is available online at http://www.cidree.org/nieuwsflits/14/
In principle, funding for all levels and types of education comes entirely out of central government funds. The Ministry of Education, Culture and Science administers almost all central government expenditure on education, while the Ministry of Agriculture, Conservation and Fisheries funds agricultural education. Under the terms of the Constitution,6 all schools - public- and private-sector - are funded on an equal basis, provided that they observe statutory conditions and regulations. (See 2.1.1). Teachers in public- and private-sector schools have the status of public servants and are paid by central government according to the same salary scales and terms of employment.11
Public- and private-sector schools receive government funding to cover the costs of staffing, operation, establishment and equipment. Several systems exist to devolve financial responsibility to the competent authority of individual institutions. In the case of public-sector primary schools, the accommodation costs are paid to the local authority.11
Education is free for all students up to the age of 16, although there may be costs to cover the purchase of some books and teaching materials and travel. Students aged 16 and over have to pay annual tuition fees, but parents may apply for remission or exemption on a means-tested basis. All students from 18 to 27 enrolled in full-time secondary or higher education are entitled to a basic grant and, depending on parental income, a supplementary grant or interest-bearing loan.11
Parents may be asked to contribute towards the cost of certain activities, including swimming lessons, cultural activities and sometimes for extra staff and equipment. Such contributions are voluntary. However if a parent or guardian does not contribute, the child may be excluded from these activities. Many schools take account of a parent's income when setting the amount of any voluntary contributions.55
The Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport funds organised childcare through the municipalities, which decide the nature of provision.11
Private schools are governed by the same legislation as public-sector schools. Article 23 of the Constitution6 places public- and private-sector schools on an equal financial footing. As a condition of funding from the public purse, the law lays down that private educational establishments must be maintained by a legal person with full legal competence, whose aim is to provide education, without any profit-making motive. The competent authority (school board) of a private school is the board of the association, foundation or church body that set it up, foundations being the most common. Private schools are established by private individuals. The majority of private schools are denominational schools. Most of these are Roman Catholic and Protestant, but there are also Muslim, Hindu and Jewish schools, among others. In addition to the denominational schools, there are also private non-denominational schools founded on ideological or educational principles. 20
See section 2.1.1 in addition.