The National Commission on Excellence in Education recommends minimum high school graduation requirements in the four core subject areas, as follows:
In this phase, students wishing to go on to (further) college education usually take one (or both) of the two principal types of test used for college admission:
In addition, some students are involved in Advanced Placement (AP) examinations (see below) and National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) testing. For further information on NAEP assessment, see sections 6.2.1, 6.2.2, 6.2.3, 6.2.4, 6.2.5, 6.2.6 and 6.2.8 or the NAEP website at http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/.
The National Assessment Governing Board (NAGB) is an independent agency created by Congress.58 The American Association of School Administrators (AASA) has a National Curriculum Audit Center which provides teams of external and independent auditors to test whether or not individual school districts:
The Educational Testing Service (ETS) oversees the Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT) for college-bound high school graduates, and the Graduate Record Examination (GRE) for college graduates intending to continue their education.50
Otherwise, during this phase also, assessment continues to be primarily undertaken at state and local levels. Most states set standards for what students should learn and how well they should learn it. All US states now have some state-wide testing policies in place to measure students' progress, along with some form of official curriculum documents and specific centralised learning standards for English, mathematics and science.
Multiple-choice standardised testing is almost universally used to determine Grade promotion.91(See 4.4.2 in addition.)
In all states, assessment of students through periodic testing assumes a high profile within courses and curricular programmes and this regular testing is invariably mandated by the state, even though much of the day to day assessment of students' work at all levels is the responsibility of the school.24
The "Programme of Studies for Kentucky Schools Grades Primary-12" (see sections 5.4.1, 5.4.2, 5.4.3, 5.4.4, 5.4.5, and 5.4.6) outlines the minimum state-wide content required for all students before graduating from Kentucky high schools. Until 2002, 20 credits in compulsory and optional/elective subjects were required to graduate; since 2002, the minimum requirements have been 22 credits (15 in compulsory subject areas, 7 in electives).42 Further details are provided in section 5.4.2. The "Programme of Studies" is available online at http://www.kde.state.ky.us/KDE/Instructional+Resources/
Curriculum+Documents+and+Resources/Program+of+Studies.htm
Kentucky's integrated testing and accountability programme - the Commonwealth Accountability Testing System (CATS) is closely linked to the Kentucky core curriculum.35
CATS includes:
Details of the 'core content for assessment' are available at http://www.kde.state.ky.us/KDE/Instructional+Resources/
Curriculum+Documents+and+Resources/Core+Content+
for+Assessment.htm
Students wishing to gain the Maryland High School Diploma and consequently graduate from high school previously had to pass four tests in the areas of reading, writing, mathematics, and citizenship, taken in Grade 9 and Grade 11 (aged 14/15 and 16/17), under what was known as the Maryland Functional Testing Programme. The purpose of this programme was to ensure that students acquired minimum levels of competency in basic skills or "functional" areas prior to graduating from public education. Students who were not pursuing a Maryland High School Diploma were not required to pass the Maryland Functional Tests.1030
The last Maryland Functional Testing Programme tests were taken in 2004 and new High School Assessment (HSA) tests are being introduced. It was originally intended that successful completion of the HSA tests - in English, government, algebra/data analysis and biology, and which are closely linked to the 'Core Learning Goals' (see 5.4.1) - would be a compulsory requirement for students graduating from 2007. Introduction of this compulsory requirement has, however, since been delayed until 2009. Currently, all students must take the tests, but they are not yet required for graduation. The delay in making successful completion of the tests a compulsory graduation requirement is intended to give schools more time to prepare for the HSA, evaluate past test results, refine curriculum and instruction and design appropriate intervention programmes for students.72
In addition, students in Grade 10, aged 15/16, must also take part in the new Maryland School Assessment programme which began to be introduced in March 2003. See section 6.2 and its sub-sections for further information.157
Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System (MCAS)
The Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System (MCAS) was implemented in response to the Education Reform Act of 1993,7which required that MCAS be designed to:
* Since the 2001/2002 school year, more students - in Grades 3, 5, 7 and 10 in addition - have been involved. Further details are provided in section 6.4.3 below.
In addition, the academic standards introduced under the Education Reform Act of 19937 include criteria for three determinations of certificates of student academic performance. As follows:
Competency determinationThis is an assessment of all Grade 10 students to determine whether they have "demonstrated mastery of a common core of skills, competencies and knowledge" in the areas of mathematics, science and technology, history and social science and English.
Certificate of MasteryThis designation is accorded to high school students who demonstrate mastery of a "comprehensive body of skills, competencies and knowledge" comparable to that possessed by high school graduates "in the most advanced education systems in the world".
Certificate of Occupational ProficiencyThis designation is conferred on students who complete a "comprehensive education and training programme in a particular trade or professional skill area" provided they demonstrate a mastery of core skills, competencies and knowledge comparable to students entering the trade or profession in the "most educationally advanced education systems in the world". To receive this certificate a student must first have acquired a Competency Determination.82
Since 1993, students in Grades 8 and 10 (aged 14 and 16 respectively) have taken state-wide assessment tests (known as the Wisconsin Student Assessment System Knowledge and Concepts Examinations). These were introduced for children in Grade 4 (aged 10), in addition, in 1996.26
Wisconsin defines its academic standards in the following manner:
To graduate from high school in Wisconsin, students currently have to earn the following minimum numbers of credits:
The state superintendent also encourages school boards to require an additional 8.5 credits selected from any combination of vocational education, foreign languages, fine arts and other courses.120
Tests administered at various levels in the states of the USA are used to monitor student progress, as a criterion for Grade promotion, for curriculum improvement, to influence policy and as a means of holding schools accountable.10 High school graduation, for which requirements vary between and within states, depends on the satisfactory completion of a specified number of courses, designated on each diploma. Test scores, high school records and recommendations from teachers form the basis for college acceptance.24
Standarised national tests
As part of the admissions process for access to further and higher education in the USA, most universities and colleges require scores from one of the standardised admissions tests. These tests are primarily multiple choice aptitude tests that are intended to measure the skills necessary for undergraduate study. American colleges use the tests are a means of assessing all applicants against the same standard.169
There are two main undergraduate admissions tests:
In addition, students of 'excellent ability' have the opportunity, in some high schools, to take Advanced Placement (AP) courses. These have a prescribed curriculum (offered across 35 disciplines) and, on successful completion of an examination, can generate college credit. This is a desired route because, if students do not need to take the courses in college, they can save money and time. Colleges and universities usually offer credit to students scoring 3 or higher (on a 1-5 scale) in the AP examinations.
The SAT, ACT and AP examinations are often used as measures of a school or school district's success in providing an effective and challenging course of study for students. However, although the SAT and ACT scores are popular measures of educational outcomes, the tests are not taken by a representative sample of students, but by those who elect to take them because they plan to go to college and this proportion of students can vary widely between states.48 See section 6.4.4 for further information about these tests.
PSAT stands for Preliminary SAT. This is a standardised test, which students may take in Grade 11 (aged 16-17) or earlier, that provides firsthand practice for the SATs tests (usually taken in Grade 12 (17- 18-year-olds). The PSAT measures verbal reasoning, critical reading, mathematical problem-solving and writing skills. The PSAT also qualifies students for the National Merit Scholarship programme.170
The "Programme of Studies for Kentucky Schools Grades Primary-12" (see sections 5.4.1, 5.4.2, 5.4.3, 5.4.4, 5.4.5, and 5.4.6) outlines the minimum content required for all students before graduating from Kentucky high schools. Fifteen credits from this programme, which is available online at http://www.kde.state.ky.us/KDE/Instructional+Resources/
Curriculum+Documents+and+Resources/Program+of+Studies.htm
are required for graduation.
Scores received by students under the state-wide Commonwealth Accountability Testing System (CATS) are intended to be used for the purposes of student and school accountability.35 There are two forms of state-wide test - the Kentucky Core Content Test and the Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills (CTBS/5). A student's results from these tests are combined with results from a student's writing portfolio, his/her longitudinal assessment measure and several non-academic measures to compute the school accountability index. 36
The Maryland Functional Testing Programme, which is being replaced by the High School Assessment (HSA) (see 6.4.1 and below for further information), aimed to ensure that students had acquired minimum levels of competency in basic skills or "functional" areas prior to graduating from public education. Each student had to pass all four tests in the individual subject areas of reading, writing, mathematics and citizenship as one condition for graduation from high school.72 The graduating class of 2004 was the last to take the Maryland Functional Testing Programme tests.
The HSA is intended to prepare students for the challenges they will meet in the world of work. The tests included in the HSA programme aim to extend the expectations of the Maryland School Assessment, see 6.3.2, into Grades 9-12 (students aged 14+ -18), and gauge both school performance and individual student performance, providing valuable information to students, parents and school improvement teams.63
Under the Education Reform Act of 1993,7 the Board of Education is directed to adopt a system for annually evaluating both individual public schools and public school districts. For individual schools, this assessment system is keyed to student performance, specifically the skills, competencies and knowledge that are included in the academic standards and curriculum frameworks in the core areas.82
The stated goals of the assessment system are to:
Massachusetts - Competency Determination
Satisfaction of the Competency Determination - an assessment of all Grade 10 students, aged 16, to determine whether they have "demonstrated mastery of a common core of skills, competencies and knowledge" in the areas of mathematics, science and technology, history and social science and English- is a condition for high school graduation. Students hoping to receive the Certificate of Occupational Proficiency (the designation conferred on students who complete a "comprehensive education and training programme in a particular trade or professional skill area") must also have first obtained the Competency Determination.82
Wisconsin Student Assessment System
The tests taken by students in Grades 4, 8 and 10 (ages 10, 14 and 16 respectively) under the Wisconsin Student Assessment System are designed to measure achievement in five subject areas - mathematics, science, social studies, reading and 'enhanced language'.121
In all states, and in all schools, all students are regularly assessed by their teachers.
NAEP (National Assessment of Educational Progress)
NAEP testing assesses a representative, national cross section/sample of students in Grades 4, 8 and 12 (aged around 10, 14 and 18 respectively) across the USA.132 Since 1990, states have had the option of surveying representative samples of their own students to yield state-by-state NAEP scores in addition to the national samples used to monitor student performance nationally and to produce long-term trends. 24
Because NAEP is not designed to provide information about individual students or individual schools, its administration design is complex. A multiple matrix sampling procedure allows for estimation of population characteristics from test results, whilst avoiding placing too much of a burden on individual students and schools.48
The 2002 Education Act - No Child Left Behind - requires that parents be informed that their children have been selected to take part in NAEP testing. If a parent does not want his or her child to be tested, the child can be pulled out of the sample. 156
SAT and ACT tests (see 6.4.1 and 6.4.2) are only taken by those students who elect to take them because they plan to go on to further or higher (college) education. The proportion of students doing so can vary widely between and within states. Students can take either or both of the tests, but have to pay fees to do so.24 About 1.3 million high school leavers take SATs each year; and just over one million take ACT tests. 155
Advanced Placement (AP) tests (see 6.4.1 and 6.4.2) are also voluntary. During the period 1990 to 2000, the number of students taking AP tests grew more than two-fold, rising to 1.27 million in 2000. The tests are offered in around 60 per cent of all high schools and cover 35 disciplines. Federal and state governments have provided funding in attempts to ensure that students from all social backgrounds have access to the test.159
In addition to continuous assessment to measure student progress as they attempt to achieve the 15 credits necessary for graduation from high school (see 6.4.2), students take part in standardised testing, as follows:
Students in Grades 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11 and 12 are tested in various subjects, as follows:
| Assessment in | Grade/Year group | |||||||||
| 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | |
| Reading | X | X | X | |||||||
| Mathematics | X | X | X | |||||||
| Science | X | X | X | |||||||
| Social studies | X | X | X | |||||||
| Arts and humanities | X | X | X | |||||||
| Practical living and vocational studies | X | X | X | |||||||
| Writing on demand | X | X | X | |||||||
Source: KENTUCKY DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION (1999a). The New Kentucky Core Content Test Blueprint. [Online] at http://www.kde.state.ky.us/
To ensure that the test provides complete coverage of the core (curriculum) content each year, a matrix design is used. This means that six different, equivalent test forms are administered each year. The advantage of this approach is that it allows broad coverage of the core content, providing maximum information to schools regarding their instructional programme, but keeps test time reasonable for the individual student. In most content area tests, a student answers only 24 multiple-choice items and six open-response questions.36
In addition, exiting Grade 3, Grade 6 and Grade 9 students (aged 9, 12 and 15 respectively) in publicly-funded schools in Kentucky participate in the Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills (CTBS/5) in reading, language arts and mathematics.37
Portfolios of students' best work in different subject areas are also collected and scored for all students in Grades 4, 7 and 12 (ages 9-10, 12-13 and 17-18 respectively) by each school's staff.43
The graduating class of 2004 was the last to take the Maryland Functional Testing Programme tests in Grades 9 and 11 (aged 14/15 and 16/17) in reading, writing, mathematics and citizenship. All students had to pass all four tests in the programme as one condition for graduation from high school. 72 The tests are being replaced by the High School Assessment (HSA) tests and, from 2009, all students will be required to pass such tests in English, government, algebra and biology to graduate from high school. 166
Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System (MCAS)
Originally, when MCAS testing was introduced, all public school students in Grades 4, 8, and 10 (aged 9-10, 13-14 and 15-16 respectively) had to take part in annual MCAS testing. Since the start of the 2001/2002 school year, students in other Grades have been involved in addition, as follows:
| MCAS tests in: | Grade 3 (aged 8-9) | Grade 4 (aged 9-10) | Grade 5 (aged 10-11) | Grade 6 (aged 11-12) | Grade 7 (aged 12-13) | Grade 8 (aged 13-14) | Grade 10 (aged 15-16) |
| English language arts | X | X | X | X | X | ||
| Mathematics | X | X | X | X | |||
| Science and technology | X | X | X | ||||
| History and social sciences | X | X | X |
Source: MASSACHUSETTS DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION (2002). Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System: Overview. [Online] at http://www.doe.mass.edu/
It is generally intended that the MCAS tests should be administered to all students in the relevant Grades, including those with disabilities and to students with limited English proficiency. Indeed, in principle, the Education Reform Act 7 provides for no exemptions from taking the tests. This policy aims to ensure that all Massachusetts public school students are provided with the opportunity to learn the materials covered by the curriculum framework learning standards which are covered by the tests77. However, the MCAS tests may be adapted to suit the needs of students with disabilities who meet eligibility requirements. Additionally, if a student is identified as having a disability/disabilities which prevent him or her from taking the MCAS tests, even with adaptations, that student must be tested by some alternate means of assessment, which is appropriate to the student's academic development. Also, some students with limited English proficiency who have been enrolled in school in the USA for three or fewer years may be exempt from the MCAS tests, or tested using modified/adapted (in some cases, Spanish language) tests.153
Parents may not legally refuse their child's participation in MCAS.153
Home-schooled students are not enrolled in the publicly-funded school system and are therefore not required nor entitled by law to participate in MCAS. Consideration may, in future, be given to permitting privately educated students, including those being home-schooled to participate in the MCAS testing programme if they wish to do so.153
Wisconsin
All students in Grades 4, 8 and 10 (aged 10, 14 and 16 respectively) take part in state-wide performance assessment testing under the Wisconsin Student Assessment System (WSAS). 26
Regular (day to day) classroom assessment and testing of students often takes the form of tests at the end of a unit of study. Many course programmes are closely modelled on commercially published textbooks or work schemes. In these cases, tests may be provided in the form of tear-out pages in the work schemes24.
The principal, though not the only, means by which the achievement of American students is expressed at the end of their compulsory years of education is a statement of the number of courses studied and the average grade awarded for work assessed. Students are graded from A (excellent) to F (failing) in each course they take, on the basis of performance in tests given at intervals throughout the year, participating in class discussions and completion of written and oral assignments.24 Performance tests are, very often, multiple-choice standardised tests. These are used throughout the United States in continuous classroom assessment from kindergarten to university.91
A high school diploma generally consists of at least 16 units, including English (4), social studies (2/3), mathematics (2), science (1/2), one foreign language (2), and health and physical education (2 to 4).23
Traditionally, the main state-wide testing programmes have been dominated by multiple-choice, short-answer or simple comprehension-type questions and this remains a strong feature of most of them. Indeed, the most prevalent method of testing is still via machine-scorable multiple-choice answer sheets. However, there has been a significant move towards the assessment in greater depth of a variety of types of writing, and the inclusion of problem-solving activity in some of the mathematics tests. Many tests also now include provisions for more "authentic" assessment techniques, also called performance assessment or alternative assessment, that require students to construct answers, perform or produce something for evaluation.24,48 In state-wide testing programmes, tests usually take place during February of the academic year.84
In addition, there are also various standarised national tests in the USA. Details of these are provided below.
Scholastic Assessment Tests (SATs)
Scholastic Assessment Tests (SATs) are required by many colleges and universities as part of the admissions application.57 They are usually taken in March of the academic year, but are also offered at other times. 169
The SAT I is primarily a multiple-choice test that measures verbal and mathematical reasoning abilities. The test is divided into seven half-hour sections: three verbal; three mathematical; and one additional section, which is either verbal or mathematical. This last section is intended to ensure the same level of difficulty from year to year and does not count towards a students final score. 169
The SAT II, which measures subject knowledge in a specific subject area, is also primarily multiple choice, but only lasts one hour. Many US colleges and universities, especially those that have more competitive admissions criteria, either require or recommend one or more SAT II test scores for admission and/or placement purposes. The subjects offered are:
Much hangs on a student's score in the SAT. It can make the difference between going to an 'Ivy League' (highly regarded) college or a good public university. Candidates wanting to gain entry to an Ivy League university would usually need to obtain marks well into the 700s in both the SAT papers (see section 6.4.6 for further details of the grading/scoring process). 98, 93
Some changes were made to the content of the SAT I tests in 2005. This was in an attempt to ensure that the exam more accurately measures the material students are taught in school and to ensure that the test evaluates students' potential for future studies. As a result, the SAT I now includes three, instead of the previous two, papers (in verbal reasoning and mathematical reasoning). The three papers are:
Students can earn a maximum score of 2,400 points on the restructured examination (up from 1,600 previously). Each of the test's three parts are scored on a 200 to 800 point basis. The three-part test lasts three-and-a-half hours (compared with around three hours for the previous two SAT papers). 155
SATs are generally administered in 'pencil and paper' format, although trials of computer-based SATs are taking place. 155
PSAT
The PSAT (Preliminary SAT) (see 6.4.2) has five sections:
It takes two hours and ten minutes to complete. A revamped PSAT was introduced in autumn 2004 to reflect the changes being introduced to the SAT in 2005 (see above). Analogy questions and quantitative comparisons were added, and the verbal sections, renamed critical reading, include some short reading passages. 170
American College Testing (ACT) assessment
ACT assessment, required by many colleges and universities as part of the admission application, comprises curriculum-based tests, scored on a 1-36 point scale, which measure a student's educational development in English, mathematics, reading, and science reasoning (four separate examinations). It is administered by the American College Testing Programme and may be given up to five times annually.169
In 2005, a new thirty-minute optional writing test was introduced to the ACT assessment. This complements the existing English test, and the combined information from both tests indicates to post-secondary institutions the student's level of understanding of the conventions of standard written English and his or her ability to produce a direct sample of writing. Full details are available on the ACT website: http://www.act.org/aap/writing/index.html.
Advanced Placement (AP) examinations
In 2000, just over one million students took Advanced Placement (AP) examinations in 35 disciplines.159 The AP exam is designed for students who have taken college-level courses during their secondary years. More than 10,000 high schools in the United States offer AP courses and nearly 3,000 colleges and universities offer credit to students scoring 3 or higher on a 1-5 scale. AP examinations take place on completion of the course of study and take the form of rigorous, subject-specific achievement tests11.
NAEP (National Assessment of Educational Progress)
See 6.3.4.
As part of the Commonwealth Accountability Testing System (CATS) students in Kentucky participate in two specific types of annual state-wide test:
Both tests take place during a two-week period in April43.
Kentucky Core Content Tests
These tests aim to assess a student's understanding of core curriculum content. Students in specific year groups are tested on specific subject areas. To ensure that the test provides complete coverage of the core curriculum content each year, a matrix design is used. This means that six different, equivalent test forms are administered each year. The advantage of this approach is that it allows broad coverage of the core content, providing maximum information to schools regarding their instructional programme, but keeps test time reasonable for the individual student. In most content area tests, a student answers only 24 multiple-choice items and six open-response questions. (An additional four multiple choice and one open-response items are included in each test booklet. These are pre-test items, which are being "tried out" as potential items for future tests. They do not count in student scores or the school accountability index.)50 The test is not timed50.
As mentioned above, the Kentucky Core Content Test employs both multiple-choice and open-response items. Either type of item can be written to elicit factual (recall) or higher-order thinking. In the Kentucky Core Content Test, open-response items are always designed to elicit higher-order thinking. Multiple-choice items present the student with four options, only one of which is correct. Open-response items request specific information but students are free to organise and present the information as they choose within one page. The one-page limit is considered as the items are developed50.
The Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills
CTBS/5 tests are multiple-choice. 43
Writing portfolio and writing prompts
In addition, as part of CATS assessment, students are required to provide a writing portfolio - a collection of their best work from various subject areas over time; and take writing prompts, which are written tess that measure skills taught in writing instruction. Normally, for their writing portfolio, students are expected to provide four pieces of work in Grade 4 (age 9-10), five pieces of work in Grade 7, age 12-13, and five pieces of work in Grade 12 (age 17-18). The writing portfolio pieces must normally be provided at the start of the test period, which is in April43.
See section 6.4.3 in addition.
Details of the 'core content for assessment' are available at http://www.kde.state.ky.us/KDE/Instructional+Resources/
Curriculum+Documents+and+Resources/Core+Content+
for+Assessment.htm
In addition, some of the Kentucky test items are released each year; these can be accessed online at
http://www.kde.state.ky.us/KDE/Instructional+Resources/
Curriculum+Documents+and+Resources/Released+Test+Items.htm
Schools use a variety of assessment types. Many local districts use portfolios.
The tests for the new high school assessment, which has replaced the Maryland Functional Testing Programme and will be compulsory for the successful graduation of all high school students from 2009 onwards, combine short-answer, long-answer and multiple-choice questions.37 Students are required to pass tests in algebra, English, goverment and biology to receive the Maryland high school diploma. The tests take place at the end of the respective courses, which are usually taken between Grade 8 (age 13-14) and Grade 10 (age 15-16). This allows students failing tests to retake them prior to completing their graduation year (Grade 12, aged 17-18). 176
Testing relates to the following subject areas:
Detailed examples of MCAS test questions can be accessed at http://www.doe.mass.edu/mcas/testitems.html
MCAS testing usually takes place in late spring (April/May), with scoring (see 6.4.5) taking place in July/August36.
In general terms, for students whose performance is difficult to assess, work samples, projects and portfolios may also sometimes be used for the purposes of assessment. 82
In the Wisconsin state-wide assessment programme (for students in Grades 4, 8 and 10, ages 10, 14 and 16 respectively), the assessment consists of mostly multiple-choice and some short-answer examinations in reading, mathematics, science and social studies. In 'enhanced language', the student answers some multiple-choice questions, some short answer questions and performs a writing task. This is an informative composition in Grades 4 and 8 and a persuasive essay in Grade 10. Where multiple-choice items are used, each question requires the students to select the best possible answer among several choices. The constructed response, short-answer items are linked thematically with the multiple-choice items and aim to provide students with the opportunity of producing their own responses to show what they know and what they can do with their knowledge.26,127
In Wisconsin Student Assessment System (WSAS) testing, students are tested on some of the knowledge and skills in Wisconsin's Model Academic Standards (see 5.4.1 and 5.4.4). However, all the content of these Standards is not covered in these tests.121
Teachers produce their own forms of assessment; tests are only one of many forms in common use. Textbook publishers provide tests with virtually all programmes, but there has been an expansion of available options with portfolio, performance and project assessment becoming increasingly standard in commercial programmes. Overall, however, classroom assessment is the prerogative of the teacher and this is an area where there is much staff development undertaken. This reflects the emphasis on the local control of education, so that community standards and priorities can take precedence. Private test setting companies produce many of the multiple-choice standardised tests still used by teachers in their continuous assessment of students.91
For the main state-wide testing programmes, much importance is attached to the perceived fairness and reliability of the tests; security of papers is tightly controlled, as are marking and moderation procedures. Each state defines curricular objectives, both for the content of the curriculum and for achievement goals. These are often numerically expressed targets for test results and other indicators, providing a framework in which the tests are constructed and the results expressed. Reporting of results is increasingly in profile form.24
The SAT and PSAT tests are administered by the College Board - a national non-profit membership association whose mission is to "prepare, inspire, and connect students to college success and opportunity". Further information is available from the College Board website: http://www.collegeboard.com/.
The American College Testing Assessment (ACT) is administered by the American College Testing Programme. Further information is available via: http://www.act.org/.
AP tests are graded or marked on an absolute scale by national markers, not by teachers for their own students.11
As part of the state-wide assessment programme in Kentucky (the Commonwealth Accountability Testing System, CATS), students in various year groups in publicly-funded schools (see 6.4.3) take two types of test, Kentucky Core Content Tests and the Comprehensive Tet of Basic Skills (CTBS/5)36.
The Kentucky Core Content Tests (for each content area) are developed by an appointed contractor in collaboration wth a Content Advisory Committee (CAC) composed of Kentucky teachers. Essentially the teachers draft test items which are edited by the contractor. In their final form, test items are reviewed by the same CAC that generated them and either selected or rejected for use as future test items. In addition, items are reviewed by special committees for possible bias and for content accuracy. Items rejected by any of these committees do not appear in the test unless revised.36
Teachers draft test items to address every bulleted statement in the Core Content (the Kentucky state curriculum).36
All test items are piloted with a sample of Kentucky students before being used "live" for accountability purposes. Each year, every student test booklet contains a limited number of these pre-test items (see 6.4.4). The contractor subsequently scores them in order to determine which are workable and eligible for use in future tests. Pre-test items do not contribute to the school's accountability index and results for these items are not reported publicly36.
Completed Core Content Tests are marked/scored by "Core Content Test Evaluators". These often include qualified current, retired or new teachers who work for a period during the school summer holidays.
Writing portfolios
Writing portfolios are scored by individual school staff using a scoring guide43.
Details of the 'core content for assessment' are available at http://www.kde.state.ky.us/KDE/Instructional+Resources/
Curriculum+Documents+and+Resources/Core+Content+
for+Assessment.htm
In addition, some of the Kentucky test items are released each year; these can be accessed online at
The Maryland State Department of Education is responsible for the development, administration, scoring, and reporting of the (previous) Maryland Functional Testing Programme, of the new high school assessment programme applicable during this phase of education, and of the Maryland School Assessment.
Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System (MCAS)
The Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System (MCAS) is externally marked by professional scorers and Massachusetts teachers who have been specifically trained. 153 Responses to open-response questions are scored, by professional scorers only, using a scoring guide or rubric. MCAS rubrics indicate what knowledge and skills students must demonstrate to earn 1, 2, 3 or 4 score points. 153
Student compositions are scored by trained teachers and are evaluated on two criteria:
For all but long compositions, scorers view electronic copies of digitally scanned images of student responses on a computer monitor and assign scores electronically. Use of this computerised scoring system aims to ensure that student responses are randomly assigned to scorers; that second readings are truly "blind"; and that supervisors have immediate access to information about scorer accuracy. Students' long compositions are each scored twice (by two separate scorers) for both topic development and standard English conventions. 62
Wisconsin Student Assessment System
The state-wide Wisconsin performance assessment system consists of tests produced by an independent company, which are developed in collaboration with advisory panels of teachers, curriculum specialists, administrators, content specialists, special education experts and parents. 26
School boards may administer their own Grade 4, 8 and 10 examinations instead of the state test. 121
Schools use either norm-referenced tests, criterion-referenced tests, or a combination of both. The most frequent type of testing is teacher-developed examinations.10
Generally, student achievement at the end of compulsory education is expressed in a statement of the number of courses studied and the average grade awarded for work assessed. Students are graded from A (excellent) to F (failing) in each course they take, on the basis of performance in tests given at intervals throughout the year, participation in class discussions and completion of written and oral assignments.24.
Scholastic Assessment Tests (SATs)
Since 2005, the SAT I has included three papers (writing, critical reading and mathematics), each of which is marked out of 800 (on a 200 to 800 scale). Consequently 2,400 marks are available to students. 155 See section 6.4.4 in addition.
ACT assessment, required by many colleges and universities as part of the admissions application, comprises four curriculum-based tests in English, mathematics, reading, and science. A student's raw score (total number of correct answers) is converted into a scaled score from 1-36. A composite score is then calculated by adding together scaled scores and dividing the sum by four. 169
Advanced Placement (AP) tests
AP tests are marked on a scale from 1 to 5, with a 3 or better necessary for receiving university credit. 11
NAEP (National Assessment of Educational Progress)
Three achievement levels have been developed for reporting NAEP results, as follows:
The state-wide Commonwealth Accountability Testing System (CATS) includes Kentucky Core Content Tests and the Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills (CTBS/5), along with a writing portfolio and writing prompts. 43
Students' results in the Kentucky Core Content Tests are assigned a performance level as follows:
The Kentucky Board of Education has set a goal for schools to have the average of all of their students reaching the 'proficient' level by 2014.38
CTBS/5 tests
CTBS/5 tests are norm-referenced.37
Writing portfolios
Writing portfolios are scored by individual school staff using a scoring guide. 43
In the first two years that the High Schools Assessment (HSA) tests were taken by students (see section 6.4.1), students were provided with a percentage score. Those scoring 60 per cent or above were considered to have performed at an above average level. Future tests will be marked out of 800 and this mark will be given to students. The Maryland State Board of Education sets the passing scores for the HSA. The table below shows the pass marks for the exams taken in 2002.168
| Test | Passing score |
| Algebra/data analysis | 412 |
| English | 407 |
| Government | 394 |
| Biology | 400 |
Overall, approximately half of the students who took the exams in 2002, passed each of the tests. Students performed best in the 'government' test, which had a pass rate of 57 per cent. They performed least well in the English test, with a pass rate of 45 per cent.176
MassachusettsSee section 6.4.5 in addition.
Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System (MCAS)
The Education Reform Act of 19937 specifically directed that any standardised tests used for assessment should be criterion-referenced in order to assess whether students are meeting the academic standards set out in the curriculum frameworks (see 5.4.1 and 5.4.4). For students whose performance is difficult to assess, the statute recommends the development of alternative methods such as work samples, projects and portfolios.82 MCAS results are reported for individual students, schools and districts according to four performance levels defined by the Board of Education, as follows:
Details of these performance level definitions are available online at http://www.doe.mass.edu/mcas/mcaspld.html.
For students scoring in the 'failing' and 'needs improvement' categories above, additional help is available via the Academic Support Services Programme (ASSP). ASSP allows districts to offer intensive small group instruction and innovative programming to provide expanded opportunities for students with the greatest need to improve their knowledge and performance. School districts primarily use ASSP funds to extend student learning time before and after school, on weekends and school vacations and during the summer. 150
WisconsinWisconsin Student Assessment System
Assessment in the United States has rested heavily on norm-referenced testing and objective-referenced mastery testing in the past, and the norm-referenced testing has relied largely on multiple-choice tests. The present Wisconsin Student Assessment System (WSAS) (students in Grades 4, 8 and 10, aged 10, 14 and 16 respectively) uses multiple-choice items, open-ended, constructed responses and written essays that provide national comparisons and a criterion reference.26
Schools report WSAS test results to parents in the following ways:
The proficiency levels are:
National
Access to higher education depends on more than completing high school. Entrance is, for example, usually dependent on a student's high school record, the courses taken, marks, recommendations from high school teachers, successful completion of the high school curriculum, and college admissions tests such as the SAT or ACT (see 6.4.2 and 6.4.4). High school leavers must also apply to the individual college.87
Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT) testing
Much hangs on a student's score in the SAT. It can make the difference between going to an Ivy League college or a good public university.98
Performance indicator systems
Some performance indicator systems in the United States routinely trigger a response to a school's low performance in specified respects, by means of a planned improvement programme. For example, in New York State, performance by an individual student which falls below a state reference point in competency tests will result in the provision of appropriate remedial support. In South Carolina, at school or district level, provision can be declared "seriously impaired"; the state then provides a programme of support aimed at achieving improvements which, in turn, are themselves measured by the indicator system. Many US states use performance indicator systems to identify the level of performance being achieved. High performance might result in some rewards. Low performance, particularly at the school level, is usually followed up by a detailed analysis and a planned improvement programme, usually supported by additional resources and staff development.24
In South Carolina and New York state, legislation enables the state to intervene to bring about school improvement where there is marked under-achievement. South Carolina has the strongest mandate under its School District Impairment Programme. The state's Education Improvement Act declares that:
when the screening process indicates that the quality of education in a given school or school district is seriously impaired, the state superintendent, with the approval of the state Board of Education, shall appoint a Review Committee to study educational programmes in that school or school district and identify factors that require improvement....24.
In many states there is a general expectation (in some a requirement) that school development planning will ensue from the reporting process. The approach , in principle, is to monitor schools, present them with performance data and then leave it to principals, together with parents and general administrative guidance from the district, to take the school forward. Advice is available in a variety of forms, often through state-employed curriculum consultants. There are moves in some states towards more corporate strategies, sharing good practice, building up advisory services and changing assessment objectives in an effort to bring about curriculum improvement. 24
MarylandMaryland Functional Testing Programme/High School Assessment
Previously, all students wishing to graduate from high school in Maryland - with the Maryland High School Diploma - had to take and pass the Maryland Functional Testing Programme tests. These tests are being replaced by the High School Assessment (HSA); the graduating class of 2004 was the last to take the Maryland Functional Testing Programme tests. (See section 6.4.1 in addition.) Currently all students are required to take the HSA, but there is no requirement to pass the tests for successful graduation. The graduating class of 2009 will be the first class which will have to take and pass the HSA tests for successful graduation.166
Generally, students who do not pass a test the first time they take it receive assistance from the local school system and may retake the test when local administrators agree that the student is ready.63
MassachusettsUnder the Education Reform Act of 19937, the State Board of Education establishes regulations that define a process and criteria to determine whether a school or school district has "chronically failed to improve the educational programme provided to students" served by the school district or an individual school. Whatever other considerations the Board of Education chooses to include in its regulations, the law requires that the Board consider student assessment results in determining whether or not a school district is under-performing.82 The Massachusetts Department of Education does not, however, rank cities or towns based on MCAS results. 153
Since 2003, students have been required to pass the MCAS Grade 10 tests (see above) (age 16) as one requirement for a high school diploma (received on completion of Grade 12). Students are being given multiple opportunities, if necessary, to pass the tests. In addition, students must meet local graduation requirements for high school graduation, for example, completion of required coursework.77
For students scoring in the 'failing' and 'needs improvement' categories of MCAS testing (see section 6.4.6 above), additional help is available via the Academic Support Services Programme (ASSP). ASSP allows districts to offer intensive small group instruction and innovative programming to provide expanded opportunities for students with the greatest need to improve their knowledge and performance. School districts primarily use ASSP funds to extend student learning time before and after school, on weekends and school vacations and during the summer. 150
See section 6.2.2 in addition.
WisconsinSee section 6.4.2.
Schools are required to report to and consult with parents extensively.24 Students generally receive report cards at least twice a year (in some school districts, up to six times) which indicate the grades received in each of the subjects studied. These grades (on an A-F scale, where A is excellent and F, failing) are based on assessment of performance in tests given at intervals throughout the school year, participation in class discussions and completion of written and oral assignments.24
Many US states issue 'report cards', some of which rank schools' performance in statewide testing. In some states only is this information released publicly; only certain states require such report cards to be sent home. 49
President Bush's 2002 Education Act ('No Child Left Behind') contains provisions relating to state/school report cards and their official publication. Further information will be posted to this website shortly. In the interim, please see the No Child Left Behind website at http://www.nclb.org/.
NAEP (National Assessment of Educational Progress)NAEP test results are reported on a national (and recently in trials, on an individual state) basis. A multiple matrix sampling procedure allows for estimation of population characteristics from test results, which means that individual districts, schools, students etc. are not identified.48 Results are reported for the nation as a whole, by region, gender, racial/ethnic group, parental education, community type and, on a voluntary basis, by state.10 However, only group statistics are reported; no individual student or teacher data are ever released.83
State assessment programmesResults of the main state-wide assessment programmes are aggregated at state, district and school levels. In some cases, they also yield data about classes and individual students. Public reporting of school and district performance in such tests is a substantial undertaking in most of the states which have them, although the reporting procedures vary in the style, format, detail and quantity of documentation. Some may identify state-mandated targets year by year and include, for example, state-wide results and progress made on the various indicators along with detailed breakdowns of attainment sub-sets in subjects, showing relative strengths and weaknesses in relation to the average scores of a school's reference group. This latter information is intended for school and curriculum development purposes and is used by principals to identify in-service and resource needs for their schools.24
Use of such "league tables", based usually on the results of multiple choice tests, has increased in recent years, due in part to demands from parents, businesses and the taxpaying community for more accountability.29
Performance indicator systems in the United States have established core sets of data against which performance can be measured on an annual basis. The information is published in a variety of ways, including district and school reports, college and university publications and a wealth of national statistics. These reports provide a focus for discussion between managers at different levels, educationists and the public they serve. They also provide a series of starting points for negotiation of policy and funding issues. Through the variety of published documents which have emerged on all phases of the system, there is, albeit to a greater extent in some states and district than in others, public access to clear information on the input and resource characteristics of most educational institutions.24
In many states there is a general expectation (in some a requirement) that school development planning will ensue from the reporting process. The approach , in principle, is to monitor schools, present them with performance data and then leave it to principals, together with parents and general administrative guidance from the district, to take the school forward. Advice is available in a variety of forms, often through state-employed curriculum consultants. There are moves in some states towards more corporate strategies, sharing good practice, building up advisory services and changing assessment objectives in an effort to bring about curriculum improvement24.
KentuckySee section 6.3.8.
MarylandThere is an annual "Maryland School Performance Report/Maryland Report Card" which provides information on education at the state, school system and school level to the public each year. The full report, which contains information on the results of the Maryland School Assessment (see sections 6.3.1, 6.3.2, 6.3.3, 6.3.4, 6.3.5, 6.3.6 and 6.3.8) and the High School Assessment (HSA), is available via the Internet at http://www.mdreportcard.org/.
MassachusettsUnder the Education Reform Act of 19937 , each district is required to maintain an individual record on every student and employee. Each student record includes a confidential identification number, basic demographic information, academic programme and course information and other data determined by the Department (of Education)82.
State-wide, district and school results in Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System (MCAS) testing are published. These provide details of percentages of students at each performance level by subject, and are available online at http://www.doe.mass.edu/mcas/results.html. However, the Massachusetts Department of Education does not rank cities or town based on MCAS scores. 153
WisconsinSee section 6.4.6.
Compulsory schooling ends at 16 in over half of the states of the USA, but most young people continue their education to high school diploma (graduation) stage (usually aged around 17-18). The following table shows the most recent figures for high school completion and drop-out rates:
|
Percentage of 15- to 24-year-olds who dropped out of Grades 10-12, October 1999 to October 2000 |
4.8 |
|
Percentage of 16- to 24-year-olds who dropped out in 2000 |
10.9 |
|
Percentage of 18- to 24-year-olds who completed high school in 2000 |
86.5 |
Analysis of this data over time shows that progress has been made since the 1970s and 1980s in reducing high school drop-out rates and increasing completion rates, although the percentages remained comparatively stable during the 1990s. Enrolment rates of students completing high school and going directly to college increased from 54 per cent in 1986 to 65 per cent in 1996. Participation rates do, however, vary by students' family income and racial/ethnic background.[Source: National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES) http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2002/droppub_2001].
Nationwide, of those students commencing a high school diploma course (usually in Grade 9 or Grade 10 of high school) 67.2 per cent continue to graduate in Grade 12 (aged 17/18) three or four years later. [Source: US National Center for Education Statistics (http://nces.ed.gov/).]
OECD figures suggest that over 50 per cent of American 18-year-olds go on to higher education (compared with an average of one third for OECD countries). However, the drop-out rate from higher education is also high, at around 37 per cent. In 1972, 49 per cent of all high school graduates enrolled in university, by 1998 this had risen to 66 per cent.160
NAEP (National Assessment of Educational Progress)The table below shows the national Grade 12 results for NAEP tests (students aged 17-18)
Percentage of students by writing achievement level 172
|
Below basic |
At Basic |
At proficient |
At Advanced |
At or above basic |
At or above proficient | |
|
1998 |
22 |
57 |
21 |
1 |
78 |
22 |
|
2002 |
26 |
51 |
22 |
2 |
74 |
24 |
See section 6.3.4 for details of the nature of these tests and 6.4.6 for a brief explanation of the marking scheme.
Percentage of student by reading achivement level 172
| Below basic | At Basic | At proficient | At Advanced | At or above basic | At or above proficient | |
|
1998 |
24 |
36 |
35 |
6 |
76 |
40 |
|
2002 |
26 |
38 |
31 |
5 |
74 |
36 |
See section 6.3.4. for detail of the nature of these tests and 6.4.6 for an explanation of the marking scheme
KentuckyStudents between the ages of 16 and 18 who wish to terminate their public or non-public education prior to graduating from high school in Kentucky may only do so only after a conference with the principal or his designee. The student's parent or guardian must also generally be involved in this meeting. Written notification of a student's withdrawal must be received from the student's parent or guardian at the time of withdrawal and the parent(s) and student are also required to attend a one hour counselling session with a school counsellor on the potential problems for non-graduates45.
The proportion of students in Grades 9-12 (aged 14+ to 18) leaving high school in Kentucky before graduating was just over five per cent in the 1997-98 academic year. This figure has been at around five per cent since 1992-93.45 According to US National Center for Education statistics, the proportion of students in Kentucky who commence education in Grade 9 (aged 14+) and graduate four years later in Grade 12, aged 18, is 65.7 per cent (http://nces.ed.gov/)
MarylandIn Maryland, the proportion of students in Grades 9-12 (aged 14-18) leaving school before graduation or completion of a Maryland approved education programme was just over four per cent in 1999. This figure had decreased from just over five per cent in 1993.67 Current dropout rates are available via the Maryland Report Card at http://www.mdreportcard.org/.
In the first High School Assessments (HSA), which took place in 2002, approximately half of the students passed each of the four tests in algebra, English, government and biology. Students performed best in the 'government' test, which had a pass rate of 57 per cent. They performed least well in the English test, with a pass rate of 45 per cent. 176
By 2004, the percentage of students passing the algebra assessment had risen from 53.2 per cent in 2003 to 58.8 per cent; in biology from 54.3 per cent to 60.9 per cent; in English from 39.8 per cent to 53.0 per cent; and in government from 60.2 per cent to 65.9 per cent. These pass rates are summarised in the table below.
High School Assessment Results - pass rate, %
| Year | Algebra | English | Government | Biology |
| 2002 | - | 45% | 57% | - |
| 2003 | 53.2% | 39.8% | 60.2% | 54.3% |
| 2004 | 58.8% | 53% | 65.9% | 60.9% |
Source: http://www.marylandpublicschools.org/MSDE/
pressrelease_details/09_14a_2004.htm
During the 2000-01 reporting year, a total of 9,380 students in Grades 9 to 12 dropped out of Massachusetts public schools and had not returned by October 1, 2001. These students represented 3.5 per cent of the 271,700 students enrolled in Grades 9 to 12 in the State's public schools on October 1, 2000. This 2000-01 annual drop-out rate of 3.5 per cent remained the same as that recorded in the 1999-2000 reporting year, 162 and has remained relatively constant; 3.4 per cent in 1996-97, and 3.7 per cent and 3.6 per cent respectively in 1994 and 1995.68
More than 75 per cent of students graduating from high school in Massachusetts in 2000 planned to attend college; this is a significant increase from 1980 when 53 per cent intended going to college and more than 30 per cent planned to go straight into work from high school. Among the 75 per cent of high school graduates heading for college in 2000, 81 per cent of female graduates planned to attend a two- or four-year college, compared to 68 per cent of male graduates. In contrast, 19 per cent of males and 11 per cent of females planned to go straight to work after high school graduation. The above data originate from the "Massachusetts Year-End School Indicator Reports", completed by high schools at the end of every school year. The full report can be accessed via the Massachusetts Department of Education website at http://www.doe.mass.edu/.
Wisconsin
|
Drop-out rate - % |
Graduation rate (%) * | |
| 1998-99 |
2.35 |
89.73 |
| 1999-00 |
2.29 |
89.33 |
| 2000-01 |
2.12 |
89.95 |
| 2001-02 |
1.94 |
90.83 |
* The graduation rate is calculated by dividing the number of students who earn a diploma after four years of high school by the number of students who dropped out during the same four-year period. In 2001-02, for example, this entailed dividing 60,575 graduates by 6,119 drop-outs.161
Information on dropout and graduation rates in Wisconsin is included in the School Performance Report website at: http://www.dpi.state.wi.us/dpi/spr.
Details of student performance and drop-out rates in the state of Texas can be found at the following website: http://www.tea.state.tx.us/ (school ratings).