INCA Education around the world
USA : Curricula (age 3-19)
- 5.2 Second phase: Elementary (primary and lower secondary), age 5/6 - 13/14 [see 3.2.2]
- 5.2.1 Control
- 5.2.2 Compulsory subjects
- 5.2.3 Optional/elective subjects
- 5.2.4 Formulation of curriculum
- 5.2.5 Key skills
- 5.2.6 Curriculum materials
5.2 Second phase: Elementary (primary and lower secondary), age 5/6 - 13/14 [see 3.2.2]
The second phase in the education system in the USA generally comprises kindergarten Grade to Grade 8 (ages 5+ - 13+).
5.2.1 Control
National/general
There is no national curriculum during this phase of education. Individual states have the right to establish curriculum guidelines.27
Consequently, federal law prescribes no standardised curriculum, but the education programmes throughout the 50 states generally include English grammar, reading and writing; mathematics; science and the scientific method; United States' history and government; art; music; health and nutrition; practical arts; physical education; geography; and foreign languages. Many schools are also beginning to teach the history, culture, and traditions of other nations and peoples. Some students also receive an introduction to the world of work, through programmes that promote career awareness.104
The intended curricula are determined at the school district level in accordance with state guidelines. All 50 US states have some form of state-wide testing policy in place alongside some form of official curriculum documents and specific centralised learning standards for English, maths and science.54Indeed, there is a move across the country to develop state-level core content standards, which provide some consistency across a state in terms of the curriculum content. Nearly every state has these standards in place, although they do vary in terms of specificity, areas covered, format, etc.90
Responsible agencies
The United States does not have a central curriculum agency; curriculum is developed at the state and local levels. Discussion of national standards for American students has, however, been the subject of extensive debate and discussion for the past several years.
(A National Council for Educational Standards and Testing was established during the previous President Bush's term of office, to explore the possibility of creating a national curriculum and a national system of assessment.)11
The American Association of School Administrators (AASA) has a National Curriculum Audit Center, which provides teams of external and independent 'auditors' to test whether or not individual school districts:
can demonstrate their control of resources, programmes and personnel;
have established clear and valid objectives for students;
can provide documentation explaining how their programmes have been developed and conducted;
use the results from assessments to adjust, improve or terminate ineffective practices or programmes; and
have been able to improve their productivity.22
The curricula of public schools across the USA are influenced by agencies other than state and federal ones. Regional educational laboratories exert influences upon schools and their curricula in at least two major ways: first, they provide guidance by way of materials and consultants; second, they produce materials for use in school programmes. While regional laboratories do not create common curricula for schools, their materials often become part of the support materials for the school's curricula. Research and development centres - usually connected with universities, with funding frequently coming from foundations or federal sources - also provide guidance and direction to American schools.27
Kentucky
In 1994, Kentucky's standards for science, mathematics, social studies, reading, writing, arts and humanities, practical living, and vocational studies were developed and are reflected in the six learning goals of the Kentucky Education Reform Act (KERA)5. The goals are:
- to use communication and mathematics skills for practical use;
- to apply core concepts and principles in all subject areas for practical use;
- to become a self-sufficient individual;
- to become responsible members of family, work group, or community;
- to think and solve problems in school situations that correlate to life experiences;
- to connect and integrate experiences and new knowledge from all subject areas with what has been previously learned.103
KERA incorporates a comprehensive system of governance, management and accountability strategies designed to help all students perform at high levels. School-based 'Decision Making Councils' establish the autonomy of individual schools to implement policy governing the instructional programme of the school and are charged with the responsibility of establishing policy to improve student performance.103
The "Programme of Studies for Kentucky Schools Grades Primary-12" aims to ensure that all students are provided with common content and have opportunities to learn at a high level. The document provides administrators, teachers, parents, and other stakeholders in local districts with a basis for establishing and/or revising their curricula. The instructional programme should emphasise the development of students' abilities to acquire and apply knowledge and assure that appropriate accommodations are made for the diverse populations of students found within Kentucky schools.32
The purpose of the Programme of Studies is to outline the minimum content required for all students before graduating from Kentucky high schools. The document specifies only the content for the required credits for high school graduation and primary, intermediate, and middle level programmes leading up to these requirements. Schools and school districts are charged with identifying the content for elective courses and designing instructional programmes for all areas. Schools and school districts are also responsible for coordinating curricula across Grades and among schools within districts32.
Kentucky's core curriculum content standards are closely linked to the state-wide assessment system - CATS - the Commonwealth Accountability Testing System. See sections 6.2.1, 6.2.2, 6.2.3, 6.2.4, 6.2.5, 6.2.6, 6.2.7 and 6.2.8 for further information.
Maryland
The role of the Maryland State Department of Education in curriculum development is to establish rigorous standards in content, identify research-based best practices in instruction, and provide models for large scale and small scale assessment of students. As such, the state provides guidance to local school systems in determining goals and expectations for learning, for pre-kindergarten (age 3+) to Grade 12 (age 17/18). The state assists local school systems in the articulation of comprehensive programmes in English language arts, mathematics, science, environmental science, social studies, foreign language, English as a second language (ESL)/bilingual education, health, physical education, and the arts. Technical assistance targets the continuum of learning from early childhood and elementary school through to high school. The state supports the enhancement of curriculum and instruction through library media and technology, character education (see 5.2.2), and student service learning, and by addressing the diversity of Maryland students through multicultural emphases.72
Maryland has developed content standards and learning outcomes for reading, writing/language usage, mathematics, science, and social studies in Grades 3, 5 and 8 (ages 8/9, 10/11 and 13/14 respectively).
The Maryland Content Standards specify the essential knowledge and skills that all students are expected to learn by the end of specific Grades. These standards help to clarify for teachers, students and parents what students should master in reading, writing, mathematics and other core academic areas. Local school systems use the Content Standards to guide their own curricula66.
See section 5.2.4 in addition.
Further details of the Maryland Content Standards are available on the Maryland School Performance Programme website at http://www.mdk12.org/mspp/standards/index.html
The Maryland Content Standards were reviewed during 1998 and 1999 (the review took around 18 months), and revised Content Standards were approved by the Board of Education in July 1999 for introduction in the autumn of that year. Learning outcomes were revised during 2000 to reflect the review and the, then, linked Maryland School Performance Assessment Programm (MSPAP) tests were adapted to fit in with the revision. Further information on MSPAP tests (and their replacement) is provided in section 6.2.
The Maryland Government has recently introduced a new high school assessment programme, which, from 2009, will make it compulsory for students to pass standardised tests before they can receive a high school diploma. The new tests in algebra, English, government and biology are to be given at the end of the respective courses, which are usually taken between Grade 8 (13-14) and Grade 10 (15/16). A voluntary state curriculum has been developed to reflect the content of the tests.176 For further information regarding the new high school assessment programme, see 6.4.1.
Massachusetts
Since the enactment of the (Massachusetts) Education Reform Act of 19937 state-wide curriculum frameworks across seven subject areas (see 5.2.2) have been developed for pre-kindergarten to Grade 12 education in Massachusetts.74
Each curriculum framework is always considered to be work in progress and, consequently, is subject to continual refinement and strengthening. The frameworks are also continually reviewed to ensure that they remain current. Local communities use the frameworks to develop more specific, locally-adapted curricula, and the Department of Education bases the state-wide student assessment programme (see 6.2.1) on the frameworks. The most recent versions of the curriculum frameworks for the state of Massachusetts are as follows:
arts, October 1999
English language arts, June 2001
foreign languages, August 1999
health, October 1999
history and social science, August 2003
mathematics, November 2000
science and technology/engineering, May 2001.
Copies of the individual curriculum frameworks can be downloaded at the following Internet address:
http://www.doe.mass.edu/frameworks/
Whilst the (Massachusetts) Education Reform Act of 19937 required the state to establish educational goals, academic standards, curriculum frameworks and a system for evaluating individual schools and school districts and, very specifically required the state Board of Education to develop academic standards in the seven core subject areas (see 5.2.2), the Act also gave the Board discretion to develop academic standards in other subject areas if it chose to do so.82,109
Wisconsin
The state of Wisconsin has a state-wide core curriculum for kindergarten to Grade 12.112 See 5.2.2. Linked Wisconsin Model Academic Standards have been developed. These describe the skills children are expected to have acquired in specific subject areas by the end of Grades 4, 8 and 12 (aged 10, 14 and 18 respectively). By state law, since 1 August 1998, as a minimum, schools have been required to adopt the Wisconsin Model Academic Standards, or local standards, for mathematics, science, reading, language arts and social studies.121
See section 5.2.4 in addition.
5.2.2 Compulsory subjects
General/national
Federal law prescribes no standardised curriculum. This is defined at local level.104
The education programmes throughout the 50 states generally include English grammar, reading and writing; mathematics; science and the scientific method; United States' history and government; art; music; health and nutrition; practical arts; physical education; geography; and foreign languages. Many schools are also beginning to teach the history, culture, and traditions of other nations and peoples. Some students also receive an introduction to the world of work, through programmes that promote career awareness.104
Elementary schools generally follow a broad curriculum outlined by each state. Subjects covered include the language arts (reading and writing), mathematics, social studies (which can include history, geography, literature, multiculturalism, ethics and values, religion, and contemporary issues), science, health, music, art and physical education (PE)23.
Science is typically a required subject of instruction at all levels. However, at the elementary school level, students may have limited exposure to science depending on the proficiency of the classroom teacher and the class schedule. By Grades 7 and 8 (ages 12-14), almost all students take a required science course. Some schools have separate life, earth and physical science courses.111
In many states, arts education courses, particularly music courses, are often the first to be cut when budgets are reduced. Many states have a force of peripatetic music teachers, rather than teachers with that specialism resident in a particular school. However, it would appear that significantly more emphasis is now being placed on such courses. A recent survey has, for example, shown that 28 states now require some arts study for high school graduation, as opposed to only two in 1980.14
Some states (Maryland - see below, Utah, Texas, New Mexico and Iowa amongst them) have recently begun to develop character education programmes as part of their curriculum. The Michigan Board of Education, for example, voted in summer 1996 that the state's schools should teach
the responsible exercise of freedom, personal honesty, self-responsibility, self-discipline, courage, love, seeking truth, doing what is good, a sense of self worth, good citizenship and a respect for others.59
In some schools or districts, community service is also included as part of the curriculum.87
Kentucky
Compulsory subjects
Elementary education in Kentucky is usually divided into primary, intermediate and middle level programmes, with the primary level programme serving children from the time they enter elementary school (age 6) until they are ready to enter Grade 4 (age 9+), intermediate level education providing for children in Grades 4 and 5 (ages 9+ - 11) and middle level education serving those in Grades 6-8 (aged 11+ to 14).87
The "required content areas" (subject areas) (see 5.2.4) throughout this period are:
Arts and humanities
English/language arts
Health education
Mathematics
Physical education
Science
Social studies32
The "Programme of Studies" is available online at http://www.kde.state.ky.us/
KDE/Instructional+Resources/
Curriculum+Documents+and+Resources/Program+of+Studies.htm. Full details of the core content for assessment of the required content areas can be found at: http://www.kde.state.ky.us/KDE/Instructional+Resources/
Curriculum+Documents+and+Resources/
Core+Content+for+Assessment.htm
The primary programme is organised to:
reflect Kentucky's learning goals and academic expectations (see 5.2.1);
effectively develop and align curriculum and instructional design to achieve those goals; and
use various ways to measure a child's continuous progress32.
The primary curriculum allows children to learn basic skills and social behaviour (e.g. working with others, taking turns) in the context of everyday experiences and natural learning processes.32
The primary curriculum presents an organised approach to instruction and learning. Using an integrated approach to curriculum and instructional design, teachers address the intellectual, social, emotional, aesthetic and physical needs of young children to provide optimum learning environments. Primary teachers use Kentucky's learning goals and academic expectations to develop instruction that integrates content areas and skills. Students, in turn, must demonstrate competence in these content areas and skills to make a successful transition to the intermediate Grades.32
The intermediate programme aims to build upon the integrated approach to curriculum and instruction begun in the primary years. It:
sets high expectations for all students through a rigorous curriculum that focuses on Kentucky's learning goals, academic expectations, and the developmental characteristics of pre-adolescent children.32
The fourth Grade programme continues to address the intellectual, social, emotional, aesthetic and physical needs of Grade 4 students, thereby supporting their successful transition from primary level education. The Grade 5 programme aims to provide a continuation and extension of learning from the primary and fourth Grade programmes and prepares students for transition to the middle level programme.32
Content charts included in the "Programme of Studies for Kentucky Schools Grades Primary-12" for the intermediate level are arranged sequentially by Grade. However, it is the prerogative of school councils to reorganise the content into a format that best meets the needs of their students. This allows schools the opportunity to create integrated, interdisciplinary, or multidisciplinary programmes.32
The middle level programme (usually for students in Grades 6-8, aged 11+-14), should provide distinct educational experiences for students. The programme should expand and extend students' learning and prepare them for the high school experience. It should reflect a rigorous academic curriculum, support the affective needs of students, provide a variety of learning experiences, and be delivered by educators who understand the developmental needs of young adolescents.32
The primary focus of the middle level programme is the academic core curriculum which is defined by the content standards presented in the "Programme of Studies for Kentucky Schools Grades Primary-12". Age-appropriate experiences that enrich and expand the core curriculum should also be included in middle level programmes. Such opportunities are intended to allow students to pursue personal interests, support academic core learning, explore career options, experience the arts, and foster fitness and health. It is suggested that these opportunities be provided through exploratory or enrichment classes or by integrating them into the core curriculum. This gives students additional avenues for success and foundations for making informed decisions about their futures32.
Technology education
In addition to the required content areas, under The Master Plan for Education Technology, mandated by the 1990 Kentucky Education Reform Act (KERA), which is implemented as the Kentucky Education Technology System (KETS), students are also expected to study technology. The focus of KETS is technology-enhanced curriculum integration, that is to say that KETS goes beyond simply teaching students how to use computers. Schools' objectives for technology should be aligned directly with their objectives for educational improvement, and schools must decide how technology can best enhance, support, and extend learning in specific content areas. Students should use computers to, for example, conduct research; gather and analyse data; create spreadsheets, charts, graphs, and databases; and create multimedia presentations.32
Maryland
The key curriculum subject areas are:
English/language arts
mathematics
science, and
social studies (can include history, geography, literature, multiculturalism, ethics and values, religion, and contemporary issues)66.
In the Maryland school curriculum, science very often includes environmental science; foreign languages are also usually included in the curriculum, as are health and physical education and arts education. In addition, many schools provide English as a second language (ESL)/bilingual education courses72.
Schools in Maryland also generally teach 'character education'. This aims to help schools support the home by fostering personal and civic virtues such as caring, respect, responsibility, and trust. Schools may provide character education through civics and social studies courses that emphasise basic constitutional principles and the responsibilities of citizenship. Character education may also include specific class sessions on ethics and values. Another approach is to infuse character education into all aspects of the curriculum and extra-curricular activities.70
Massachusetts
As a result of the (Massachusetts) Education Reform Act of 19937 , curriculum frameworks for pre-kindergarten to Grade 12 (high school) students have been established to cover seven discipline areas:
mathematics;
science and technology;
social science/social studies (includes US and world history, geography, economics, civics and government);
English language arts;
world languages;
the arts (includes dance, music, theatre and the visual arts); and
health (includes health education, physical education and family and consumer science education)74.
The most recent versions of the curriculum frameworks for the state of Massachusetts are as follows:
arts, October 1999
English language arts, June 2001
foreign languages, August 1999
health, October 1999
history and social science, August 2003
mathematics, November 2000
science and technology/engineering, May 2001.74
Copies of the individual curriculum frameworks can be downloaded at the following Internet address:
http://www.doe.mass.edu/frameworks/
These frameworks are intended to provide:
- guides for creating a detailed curriculum;
- guides for classroom assessment;
- guides for selecting instructional materials;
- guides for planning professional development;
- guides for restructuring schools to support learning;
- a presentation of critical issues that underlie learning, teaching and assessment; and
- support for teachers to try innovations ad investigations that lead to high quality learning experiences for all students109.
These curriculum frameworks are not intended to provide:
- detailed lesson plans or curriculum;
- items on which all students must be tested;
- directives for uniform programmes or texts; or
- mandates for specific methodologies or programmes.109
The foreign languages curriculum framework recommends that the teaching of a second language should begin in elementary school, children aged 6+76.
Language acquisition is a lifelong process. Foreign language programmes should begin in elementary school, since language acquisition is more easily accomplished at a young age& & 76
Wisconsin
Under the Wisconsin educational standards (see 2.1.1), the state requires all schools to provide regular instruction in reading, language arts, social studies, mathematics, science, health, physical education, art, music and in certain Grades/year groups, career exploration, vocational education and foreign language education.122 Additionally, since August 1998, when schools were expected to adopt the Wisconsin Model Academic Standards (see 5.2.1 and 5.2.4), it has been recommended that the school curriculum should be designed to meet or exceed these Standards.121
The state-wide kindergarten to Grade 12 core curriculum (students aged 5+-18) in the state of Wisconsin generally comprises:
- mathematics (number operations and relationships, geometry, measurement, statistics and probability and algebraic relationships);
- science (nature of science, science inquiry/problem solving, science connections, physical science, life and environmental science, science communication, science applications and personal and social perspectives);
- English language arts (language, literature, reading, writing, listening, speaking, media and technology and research); and
- social studies (history, political science, civic ideals and practices, geography, economics, global connections, anthropology/culture, sociology, psychology and science, technology and society).112
Religious instruction is not normally provided in publicly-funded schools in Wisconsin. However, school boards usually grant permission to those students who provide a written request from their parents, to be absent from school for at least 60 minutes, but not more than 180 minutes per week to obtain religious instruction outside the school.120
Schools in Wisconsin must annually schedule at least 437 hours of direct student instruction in kindergarten (5- to 6-year-olds), at least 1,050 hours in Grades 1 to 6 (6- to 12-year-olds) and at least 1,137 hours in Grades 7 to 12. These scheduled hours include time for recess (breaks) and time for students to transfer between classes, but do not include the lunch period.
Minimum allocated instructional time recommended by the Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction
Recommended allocations of time per week for a six-hour school day
|
K* |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 | |
|
Reading/English Language Arts** |
30% |
700 |
700 |
600 |
600 |
500 |
425 |
|
Mathematics |
10% |
250 |
250 |
250 |
250 |
250 |
250 |
|
Social Studies |
10% |
125 |
150 |
175 |
200 |
225 |
250 |
|
Science |
10% |
100 |
100 |
150 |
150 |
175 |
250 |
|
Health |
10% |
75 |
75 |
100 |
100 |
125 |
125 |
|
Physical Education |
10% |
150 |
150 |
150 |
150 |
150 |
150 |
|
Art |
10% |
90 |
90 |
90 |
90 |
90 |
90 |
|
Music |
10% |
75 |
75 |
75 |
75 |
75 |
75 |
|
Foreign Language |
-- |
-- |
-- |
-- |
-- |
100 |
100 |
|
Environmental Education*** |
*** |
*** |
*** |
*** |
*** |
*** |
*** |
|
Computer Literacy*** |
*** |
*** |
*** |
*** |
*** |
*** |
*** |
|
Career Exploration and Planning**** |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
--- |
**** |
**** |
|
Total Allocated Instructional Minutes |
1565 |
1590 |
1590 |
1615 |
1690 |
1715 |
* Up to one-third of each day in the kindergarten schedule may be reserved for students' self-selected instructional activities. The allocated instructional time recommendations presented in column K apply only to the portion of the schedule planned for teacher-directed activities. The time allocations for kindergarten are expressed in percentages to facilitate planning for various kindergarten schedules.
** Instruction specifically designed to strengthen reading and writing abilities should be integrated into other subject areas, such as health, science, and social studies.
*** Environmental education should be integrated into Grades kindergarten to 12, with the greatest emphasis in the subjects: health, science and social studies. Computer literacy should also be integrated into Grades kindergarten to 12.
**** An introduction to career education and planning, through a one semester course, or the equivalent in instructional time and course content, should be provided in Grades 5 to 8 (aged 10 onwards).
Source: Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction http://www.dpi.state.wi.us/dpi/dlsis/cal/timeallo.html
5.2.3 Optional/elective subjects
National
The Federal Government has recently launched the Elementary School Foreign Language Assistance Programme (FLAP). The main goal of the programme is for 25 per cent of all public elementary schools in the United States to offer high-quality, standards-based foreign language programmes by 2005. The programme:
promotes the goal that all students will develop proficiency in more than one language;
emphasises the importance of early language learning;
aims to increase the number of elementary school foreign language teachers;
encourages new technologies to bring foreign language instruction to students in effective ways; and
encourages programmes that emphasise foreign language fluency rather than cultural exposure.25
Kentucky
Schools and school districts are charged with identifying the content for elective courses and designing instructional programmes for all areas.32
A foreign language is most commonly offered as an elective subject during this phase.32
See section 5.2.2 in addition.
Massachusetts
Whilst the Education Reform Act of 19937 specifies the seven core (compulsory) discipline areas (subjects) (mathematics, science and technology, social studies, English language arts, world languages, the arts, and health), academic standards may also be developed in the following areas: nutrition; physical education; Massachusetts and labour history; violence prevention; drug, alcohol and tobacco abuse prevention; family life skills; basic career exploration and employability skills; technology education; computer science and keyboarding skills; environmental science and protection; global education and geography; and community service learning.82 109
Wisconsin
Optional subjects offered include dance, music, theatre and visual arts, family and consumer education, foreign languages, health education and physical education.112
Schools also commonly offer agricultural education, business, environmental education, information and technology literacy, marketing education, and technology education.121
5.2.4 Formulation of curriculum
For most of this century, US educational reformers viewed school quality in terms of a range of resources, facilities and conditions. School quality depended on inputs, such as the quality of the physical environment, characteristics of teachers and school finance. The 1966 release of the Equality of Education Opportunity report (EEOR), or Coleman Report, found that 'schools bring little to bear on a child's achievement that is independent of this background and general social context'. This widely publicised finding dramatically shifted the focus of discussion about equality of opportunity away from inputs to the outcomes of schooling. This shift away from school resources towards school outputs measured by tests of academic achievement clearly contributed to the prominence of testing as a policy tool of accountability from the 1960s to the present.48
Kentucky
Under the Kentucky Education Reform Act of 1990, KERA,5 a detailed set of 'Student Academic Expectations' clearly defined what students should know and be able to do in the five major content areas of reading, writing, mathematics, science, and social studies as well as practical living, vocational studies, and the arts. These Academic Expectations have been incorporated into classroom instruction and curriculum, and are measured by the performance-based assessment and accountability programme. The curriculum remains closely linked to the new CATS assessment programme (see 6.2.1, 6.2.2, 6.2.3, 6.2.4, 6.2.5, 6.2.6, 6.2.7 and 6.2.8 for further information).
The Programme of Studies for Kentucky Schools Grades Primary-12 (see 5.2.1) specifies the minimum content required for specific credits and courses in "Required Content Areas". Each subject area sub-section begins with an introduction that provides background information, followed by charts that specify the minimum content. The content is based on Kentucky's learning goals, academic expectations, and input from professional organisations, teachers, and administrators. Learning Goal 1 (Basic Communication and Mathematics Skills) and Goal 2 (Application of Core Concepts provide the basic academic skills and content for what Kentucky high school graduates should know as they exit public schools. However, the skills identified in the other goals (see 5.2.1) are equally important32.
Maryland
In 1990, five Learning Outcome Development Committees, each composed of state and local school system content/curriculum supervisors, developed the Maryland Learning Outcomes and Content Standards. These specify what students should know and be able to do by Grades 3, 5, and 8 (ages 8/9, 10/11 and 13/14 respectively) as a result of their educational experiences in reading, mathematics, writing/ language usage, science, and social studies. The learning outcomes were based on national and international studies of student achievement, recommendations of national educational reports, and on Maryland's curriculum frameworks. Once reviewed by local curriculum supervisors, advisory groups, and school system superintendents, the learning outcomes guided test contractors in their work with Maryland teachers and curriculum supervisors in developing and validating the, then, Maryland School Performance Assessment Programme (MSPAP) assessment objectives, item specifications, and test items. (See 6.2.1, 6.2.2, 6.2.3, 6.2.4, 6.2.5, 6.2.6, 6.2.7 and 6.2.8 for detailed information on MSPAP testing.) The learning outcomes also assisted local school systems in developing detailed programme, course, and unit outcomes.62
(The Maryland Content Standards were reviewed during 1998 and 1999 (the review took around 18 months), and revised Content Standards were approved by the Board of Education in July 1999 for introduction in the autumn of that year. Learning outcomes were revised during 2000 to reflect the review and the, then, linked Maryland School Performance Assessment Programm (MSPAP) tests were adapted to fit in with the revision. Further information on MSPAP tests is provided in section 6.2.)
Curriculum frameworks are used to guide local education agencies in the local development of curriculum. They are not prescriptive. Each local superintendent certifies to the state Department of Education that the state curriculum outcomes are met by the local curriculum. The state requires local school systems to administer Maryland School Assessment testing in Grades 3, 5 and 8 (see 6.2.1, 6.2.2, 6.2.3, 6.2.4, 6.2.5, 6.2.6, 6.2.7 and 6.2.8) to measure school and district success in meeting standards in reading, writing, mathematics, and citizenship.105
Further details of the Maryland Content Standards are available on the Maryland School Performance Programme Web site at http://www.mdk12.org/mspp/standards/index.html
Massachusetts
Content standards are developed for each of the seven curriculum frameworks. Each content standard has four components:
core concepts: these are 'organisers' or 'big ideas' which have been designed to help teachers and students conceptualise learning in the discipline;
strands: these describe the broad areas of knowledge and skills that students encounter pre-kindergarten through to Grade 12 as they study the core concepts of a discipline;
learning standards: these articulate the specific content that students study and the skills through which students practice the strands in developmentally appropriate ways. These are presented in Grade level clusters: Pre-kindergarten to Grade 4, Grades 5-8, Grades 9 and 10; and Grades 11 and 12;
examples of student learning: these classroom ideas help teachers identify how the curriculum can be structured for students to demonstrate increasing mastery of content and skills at the Grade level clusters.109
These standards apply to all Grades in Massachusetts from pre-kindergarten through to high school.82,109
Wisconsin
Wisconsin Model Academic Standards
The state of Wisconsin has produced Model Academic Standards for the kindergarten to Grade 12 curriculum. The Standards describe the skills children are expected to have acquired by the end of Grades 4, 8 and 12 (ages 10, 14 and 18 respectively). Each subject area is divided into:
content standards: what students should know and be able to do;
performance standards: how students show how they meet the standards; and
proficiency standards: how well students have learned the content. These have been developed for the five subjects covered in state-wide tests (see 6.2.4) - mathematics, science, social studies, reading and language arts.121
In detail, the Model Academic Standards
indicate what students should know and be able to do at what level and how they can demonstrate evidence of meeting the standards;
are established in all subject areas and include specific knowledge and skills as well as processes and applications;
are specific enough to give school districts guidance in developing local curricula, instruction and assessment, and to give test developers guidance in developing state tests. They are broad enough to allow for local control of the curriculum and ensure that teachers do not limit instruction to details and factual material;
cover material essential in each subject area that can be accomplished within a reasonable time period;
are rigorous and world class, reflecting perspectives in Wisconsin, in the United States and beyond;
assist teachers in the evaluation of student performance. This means making clear what students have to do to give evidence of learning the content, skills and application and how well they will be expected to do;
include multiple performance levels. These should be illustrated by student work, so that teachers, students, parents and the public can see what is possible and expected;
do not dictate how the material should be taught or the instructional materials should be used;
are clearly written, with the recognition that every subject has its own special technical words that are part of learning the subject.112
Schools have been expected to adopt these standards (or local ones) since 1 August 1998 (see 5.2.1).121
The Wisconsin Model Academic Standards for English language arts, mathematics, science, social studies, agricultural education, business, dance, environmental education, family & consumer education, foreign languages, health education, information and technology literacy, marketing education, music education, physical education, technology education, theatre education and visual arts education are available at the following web site: http://www.dpi.state.wi.us/standards/index.html 121
5.2.5 Key skills
Kentucky
There are five major 'content areas' in the curriculum. These are reading, writing, mathematics, science and social studies (as well as practical living, vocational studies and the arts).
Massachusetts
The Massachusetts curriculum frameworks for pre-kindergarten to Grade 12 education establish three broad goals that are critical to lifelong learning and that frame the learning, teaching and assessment process. These are:
thinking and communicating: ways of making sense or meaning of the world and our experiences to ourselves and to others. Thinking includes being able to internalise new ideas and connect them to familiar concepts and prior knowledge. Communicating means putting learning into the language of speech or writing and requires reflection in such forms as examination, clarification, analysis and synthesis;
gaining and applying knowledge: involves pursuing ideas and experiences and applying new knowledge in real life contexts. This pursuit is interactive by nature. The more experiential it is, the more powerful the learning;
working and contributing: imply that student work is meaningful and purposeful and that the process and products of student work are valued contributions to the school and community. Imbedded in powerful learning experiences are notions of persistence, self-discipline, hard work and effort and pride in producing quality work.108
These goals aim to set a vision for the curriculum frameworks and for creating dynamic classrooms in which learning, teaching and assessment reflect best practices.108
Wisconsin
The Department of Public Instruction of the state of Wisconsin has developed five 'areas of applied knowledge'. These areas connect with what community members and employers consider that citizens and employees should know and be able to do and they go beyond the mastery of individual subject areas. Teachers in every class are expected to encourage the development of these shared applications, both to promote the learning of the subject content and to extend learning across the curriculum. These applications of academic standards fall into five general categories:
- application of basics
- ability to think - e.g. problem solving; informed decision making; critical, creative and analytical thinking;
- imagining places, times and situations different from one's own; developing and testing a hypothesis;
- transferring learning to new situations;
- skill in communication - e.g. constructing and defending an argument; working effectively in groups;
- communicating plans and processes for reaching goals; receiving and acting on instructions, plans and
- models: communicating with a variety of tools and skills;
- production of quality work - e.g. acquiring and using information; creating quality products and
- performances; revising products and performances; developing and pursuing positive goals;
- connections with community - e.g. recognising and acting on responsibilities as a citizen;
- preparing for work and lifelong learning; contributing to the aesthetic and cultural life of the community;
- seeing oneself and one's community within the nation and the world;
- contributing and adapting to scientific and technological change.112
5.2.6 Curriculum materials
National/general
About half of the states recommend textbooks at the state level after some process of review against state curriculum guidelines, and have a state-level textbook adoption process. Most of these states are located in the south. Texas and California also have state textbook adoption programmes. In California, for example, schools may only opt out of the state-recommended textbook system with an official waiver. In some cases, state education funds may only be used for the purchase of books approved at the state level.
Textbooks are produced by private corporations/independent publishers, with about ten such corprations doinating te industry. Indeed, because so many students are located in three state adoption states (Florida, Texas, and California), the curriculum needs of these three states exert a strong influence on the content of textbooks in the United States. For example, the fact that both science and mathematics textbooks are developed by private corporations means that states that present large commercial markets can influence what is included in textbooks to a great extent. The fact that both California and Texas have large student populations (and, therefore, buy many textbooks) and also have state textbook adoption processes, allows them to have substantial influence on textbooks. Since the textbooks that are produced for California and Texas are also sold in other states, the guidelines that those states establish for textbooks have an impact nationally.
In all cases, specific textbook selection is a local decision, although, in some places, this selection may be limited to among those approved by the state.27
In most states, textbooks are provided to students free of charge. However, some states do charge fees, often to high school students only.
Specific materials for character and civics education
The Department of Education's Office of Safe and Drug-Free Schools has a website for the Character Education and Cvic Engagement Technical Assistance Center (CETAC), which offers teachers, parents and the wider community information and resources on character education and civic engagement. These subjects are key components of the No Child Left Behind Act, which aim to help students learn to respect themselves and others, and generally promote positive moral and civic values.175For further information, see the CETAC website, which is located at: http://www.cetac.org/.
Federal Resources for Educational Excellence
A vast number of teaching and learning resources covering a broad range of subjects is available from the Federal Resources for Educational Excellence (FREE) website. New resources from Federal agencies and organisations are added each month: http://www.ed.gov/free/index.html
Kentucky
The Kentucky Department of Education publishes a State Multipe List. This is a list of state-recmmended textbooks and printed and electronic instructional materials, which is developed based on the recommendations of a state-wide review team comprising parents and educators. The State Multiple Listis adopted in accordance with a six-year schedule, and the review team, selected each year, designs an evaluation instrument for reviewing bids, evaluates bids from publishers and recommends items for adoption to the State Textbook Commission. The approved State Multiple List is then sent to each district. A district adoption is required. Most districts now adopt the State Multiple List in its entirety. The district list is then issued to all local districts, and subsequently to schools.34
Each school has the responsibility of reviewing and selecting instructional resources. In order to select instructional resources that will meet the needs of the school and complement the instructional strategies used, decisions are usually based on such aspects as:
the KERA learning goals and academic expectations (see 5.2.1);
student needs;
the philosophy of the district and school;
existing school plans; and
assessment reports34.
Responsibility for selection and purchasing of resources is usually handled through a school committee. Members can include teachers, parents, students and administrators.34
In addition, there is also a state list of electronic instructional materials (EIM), which is developed by the Kentucky Educational Technology System (KETS)34.
Textbooks for students in elementary education (Grades 1-8, aged 6+ to 14) are usually provided free of charge34.
The Kentucky Department of Education also produces and sells a number of tools and resources for use by educators, parents and others who are interested in the state's education system. These include a variety of publications, CD-ROMS and videotapes. Their focus includes curriculum, instructional techniques, best practices, school and district governance and other topics. As a standard practice, each school and district receives at least one free copy of every new publication or CD-ROM when it is issued. Additional copies are available to schools and districts, typically at a reduced price33.
Maryland
Maryland does not use a state adoption process. Each district makes its own decisions about textbooks and other curricular materials107.
The Maryland State Department of Education has, however, recently produced guidelines to assist local school systems in their assessment of the multicultural appropriateness of various textbooks and other materials used in schools for students. These guidelines have been developed according to criteria emphasised in the Maryland State Education That Is Multicultural Regulation, and apply to all "instructional materials". These are defined as a variety of materials in any format which influence a student's learning and the instructor's teaching. They include, but are not limited to, textbooks, library books, periodicals, pamphlets, art prints, study prints, pictures, transparencies, films, filmstrips, slides, videocassettes, videodiscs, audio cassettes, sound recordings, compact discs, computer software, CD-ROMS, and electronic resources73.
Massachusetts
In accordance with state law, the principal at each school, subject to the direction of the superintendent and at the expense of the school district, purchases textbooks and other educational materials and supplies to be used by students in school. The purchases must be within the budget approved by the school committee, and must also be purchased in accordance with any procurement or purchasing guidelines adopted by the municipality.81
The superintendent's involvement in the process is to ensure that the books and materials selected for any particular school are consistent with the educational goals and policies established by the school committee. The school committee, in approving a budget for the district, establishes the budgetary limits within which the principal and superintendent must operate.81
Textbooks are usually provided to students free of charge81.
In addition, there is a state-wide organisation - Educational Technology Integration Services (ETIS) - which aims to ensure that public schools and libraries can easily procure technological goods and services under the state procurement law. Launched in May 1997, by the Department of Education, ETIS approves certain manufacturers of computing hardware as vendors, and also establishes a separate approved vendor list for providers of online instructional content.75
Wisconsin
In accordance with state law, schools may charge for textbooks, either by selling or renting them to students. Needy students must, however, be provided with textbooks free of charge.123
