Teaching groups are organised at the local level, and vary widely in structure. In elementary schools, students are usually grouped by age, regardless of ability, although smaller groups may be formed for skill development within the classroom8.
Many middle schools and high schools have moved away from "tracking" by ability or skill level (streaming) towards heterogeneous grouping for many subject areas. Grouping by ability does, however, still occur in many schools. In some schools, students with higher grades may, for example, specialise in mathematics and science early, increasing their options later. There are also schools that provide enhanced or accelerated programmes for talented students; some of these specialise in mathematics or science8.
Considerable debate and discussion among professional educators continues, as schools address the challenge of meeting the educational needs of many diverse learners in a classroom.8
The general philosophy in Kentucky is that children develop at different rates, with different needs and learning styles. As a result, in Kentucky's primary classrooms (children aged 5+ to 8+) and in the kindergarten year for children aged 5 to 6, students are grouped at least part of the time based on their skills and abilities rather than solely by age. Primary teachers typically guide children through lessons that are appropriate for their skills and abilities, then assign them to hands-on learning centres around the room that reinforce what is being taught. For example, one group of 5- and 6-year-olds might work on spelling words, while a more advanced group of 5- and 6-year-olds writes sentences and still another group works on paragraphs.44
Multiple-choice standardised testing is almost universally used at elementary school level to determine Grade promotion.91 However, in many states, the practice of 'social promotion' - moving students on regardless of their ability - does seem to take place. Children often progress through the Grades simply by 'putting in time' because of pressure from parents, determined their child will not suffer the stigma of staying down a year, and because many principals are reluctant to halt their progress and make the school look bad. A small, but growing minority of districts are however acting to reduce this practice. Chicago, with 425,000 students, required 42,000 to enter summer courses in 1997 in reading or mathematics or face being failed. The city of Cincinnati expressly banned social promotion; where before 95 per cent of students automatically moved on, nearly a third were held back in the early elementary school Grades in 1996. It is estimated that between 15 and 20 per cent of American students are held back in the same Grade in any year. In urban districts, more than 50 per cent of children will be retained at least once15.
In New York, since 2000, any student aged over 9 who has not reached the required standard to proceed to the next year, has been required to attend summer school until they meet new minimum academic standards. In order to be promoted to the next Grade, they are then required, at the summer's end, to pass a proficiency examination and demonstrate a 90 per cent attendance record. Those who then fail the end of summer exam have to repeat their last Grade, and spend an extra hour in class after school or attend evening classes.51
One of the factors which appears to facilitate the practice of social promotion is that there are no agreed national standards which define what students should know and be able to do at various Grade levels; some states do now have these, however, and many are in the process of developing them, although they vary immensely. One school in Nevada, for example, requires only that student advancement through the curriculum should be 'according to the student's demonstrated ability'. In Long Beach, California, promotion to the next Grade requires students to 'demonstrate sufficient growth in learning required basic skills'.15
Elementary education in Kentucky extends from kindergarten grade to Grade 8 (children aged 5+ to 14), but is usually divided into primary, intermediate and middle level programmes. Primary level programmes serve children from the time they enter elementary school (usually in voluntary kindergarten year, age 5+, or at age 6 in Grade 1) until they enter Grade 4 (age 9+); intermediate level education provides for children in Grades 4 and 5 (aged 9+-11); and middle level programmes are for those children in Grades 6-8 (aged 11+ to 14)32.
Kentucky has instituted a multi-age, multi-ability program for 5+- to 8+-year-olds (kindergarten to the end of Grade 3, the end of Kentucky's primary education phase.) Students learn and progress at their own pace and are assessed continuously. They advance to Grade 4 when they are ready.106
Students in kindergarten to Grade 12 can be retained in Grade if they are not considered to have made sufficient progress in the course of study established by local school boards. A child is retained in kindergarten to Grade 8 (aged 5+ to 14) if, at the end of the year, it is decided by administrators, parents and teachers that he or she has not made sufficient progress and should repeat a Grade119.
In June 1998, the Wisconsin Legislature passed a student assessment statute regarding Grade promotion. This statute came into effect in September 2002. As a result, all students in Grades 4 and 8 (aged 10 and 14 respectively) taking the Wisconsin Knowledge and Concepts Examinations, WKCE, are required to achieve a proficiency level of 'basic' or above (see 6.2.6) in each subject area tested (see 6.2.4) in order to be promoted to Grades 5 and 9 respectively.121
In cases where students are exempted from taking the Grade 4 and Grade 8 WKCE tests - for reason of special educational need, for example - the school board must develop alternative criteria for evaluating students and students must satisfy these criteria in order to be promoted.121
A student's WKCE scores are just one of several criteria for advancing students from Grade 4 to Grade 5 or from Grade 8 to Grade 9. The other criteria used include general academic performance, teacher recommendations based on academic performance and any other academic criteria specified by the local school board. (http://www.dpi.state.wi.us/oea/kce.html)
See section 6.2.7 in addition.
Academic research in the United States has long linked class size to achievement and now puts the maximum effective class size for elementary schools at 25. In 1996, however, only half of elementary school teachers reported classes of that size or smaller.16
President Clinton has recently introduced the class size reduction programme. This is an initiative developed to assist schools in improving their pupil:teacher ratios, particularly in the early years of compulsory education, by providing additional funds to schools to enable them to employ additional teaching staff. Since 1 July 1999, the federal Department of Education has issued specific class size reduction funds to all US states. School districts apply directly to their states for local sub-grants. Through the formula for school district grants, funds are targeted at high poverty communities, but it is intended that most districts should receive awards. The overall aim is to reduce class sizes in Grades 1-3 (children aged around 6-9) to a nationwide average of 18.99
In Kentucky, maximum class sizes are in force for every academic course requirement in all Grades except in vocal and instrumental music, and physical education classes.
As a result, the maximum number of students generally enrolled in a class is as follows:
24 in primary Grades (kindergarten to Grade 3, children aged 5+ to 8/9);
28 in Grade 4, children aged 9/10;
29 in Grades 5 and 6, children aged 10-12; and
31 in Grades 7 to 12, students aged 12+ - 17/18.
These maximum class sizes became effective in April 1998.31
In addition to participating in the national class size reduction programme, see above, one of the components of Maryland's Learning Success Programme is a maximum class size of 20 students for reading instruction in Grades 1 and 2 (children aged 6-8). It is expected that this class size reduction programme will commence in April 2001.65
Maximum class size may not exceed 35.
There is a general recommendation that class size in all Grades below Grade 6 (children aged 11-12) should be restricted to no more than 25.
In addition, in 1995, the Student Achievement Guarantee in Education programme (SAGE) was introduced. Through the programme, additional funding is provided to certain school districts. The purpose is to improve academic achievement through implementation of four strategies:
As part of its contract with the state for this additional funding, each school is required to identify local academic standards in core subjects for each Grade covered by the programme and report annually on achievement.219
California has a 20 children per infant class (6- to 8-year-olds) limit, which means that another class has to be formed when that figure is breached. This policy is currently costing the state 1.5 billion US dollars a year.96
Texas has a law limiting elementary school class sizes for children in Kindergarten year to Grade 4 (age 5+ to 9/10) at 22 children. Individual districts may, however, apply to be exempt from this law.18