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Germany : Curricula (age 3-19)

Last updated: 08-Sep-2010
5.3 Third phase: Lower secondary, age 10 (12) - 15/16 [see 3.2.3]
5.3.1 Control
5.3.2 Compulsory subjects
5.3.3 Optional/elective subjects
5.3.4 Formulation of curriculum
5.3.5 Key skills
5.3.6 Curriculum materials

 

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5.3 Third phase: Lower secondary, age 10 (12) - 15/16 

See 3.2.3

5.3.1 Control

Following an agreement by the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Culture of the 16 German Länder in 2002, common national educational standards have begun to be developed for specific stages in primary and secondary education.⁹³  It is intended that the standards should facilitate the comparison of results at national level, whilst allowing schools to provide students with individual support. The common educational standards:

• set out the basic principles for each of the subjects
• describe the specific competencies which students should have reached at this stage of their education
• promote systematic and integrated learning and
• outline the expected levels of achievement.¹⁶⁴      

At the start of the 2004/2005 school year, initial standards relating to German, mathematics and the first modern foreign language (either English or French) were adopted in the schools of all Länder as the basis for subject-specific requirements for the mittlerer Schulabschluß (the lower secondary school qualification, which is usually taken at the end of Year 10 when students are around 16 years old, see 6.3.2.).  In October 2004, the Standing Conference adopted educational standards in the subjects German and mathematics for the primary sector (Year 4, children aged nine to 10) and in the subjects German, mathematics and for the first foreign language (English or French) for the Hauptschulabschluß (the lower secondary qualification, which is usually taken at the end of Year 9 when students are around 15 years old, see 6.3.2.). In December 2004, educational standards were also adopted for the subjects biology, chemistry and physics for the mittlerer Schulabschluß. Further information is available in English at: http://www.bmbf.de/en/1154.php

The Federal Ministry of Education and Research has produced a publication which sets out a definition of the concept of educational standards and describes the national infrastructure required for the development and evaluation of the standards.  This publication is available in English on the Ministry's website (pdf file).

 

Curriculum development
The Ministers of Education and Culture in the Länder are responsible for the development and implementation of curricula for the subjects taught at the different types and levels of school.  In addition, the Federal (National) Institute for School and Adult Education monitors the development of curricula at the national level.^12,42 Whilst each Land is responsible for the syllabus in its regions, the qualifications obtained at the end of compulsory full-time lower secondary education have recognition outside the individual Länder.⁴³

Curriculum development work and its supervision is legally the responsibility of the Curriculum Development Department of the Federal (National) Institute for School and Adult Education. The Department consists of a main section responsible for education and teaching, educational research and school counselling and six specialist sections which cover the main subjects taught in schools (German; foreign languages; mathematics/science; social sciences/history/religion; art/music; sport). In addition, three coordination sections (primary, lower secondary and upper secondary) are responsible for schools in the corresponding category. There is also a 'special education' section which deals with curricula for special schools (Sonderschulen), and a section which is exclusively concerned with vocational training. Depending on the type of school and the volume of curriculum development work, the sections participate in all phases of development and revision work. Since its creation in 1978, the Institute has become the central agency for curriculum development activities and continuing professional development for teachers.⁴²

At the regional (Land) level, curricula are usually developed in special curriculum planning commissions (committees) by teachers (including headteachers) who are assisted by other specialists such as representatives of the school (administrative) authorities and school research institutes in the appropriate Land and, to a lesser extent, by subject specialists from institutions of higher education.^12,38 Typical curriculum commission composition would be:

• six to eight teachers of the particular subject and from the type of school concerned;
• a representative of the school inspectorate, who is frequently the Chairman of the curriculum commission;
• a member of the Federal Institute for School and Adult Education as a supervisor.⁴²

Curriculum committees usually meet once a month and curricula are normally developed in parallel for all subjects in a particular type of school. The process of preparing the general teaching directives for a specific type of school takes place while the curricula are being developed.⁴²

Members do not usually receive any specific specialist training for their curriculum committee activities. Their most important task is to incorporate the specific, practical conditions of schools, their wishes and their concern for certain provisions in the curriculum development process - by providing guidance and proposing adjustments.⁴²

Teachers on curriculum committees are usually allowed four hours each week out of the classroom for these activities. Committee members are appointed by the Minister of Education and Culture (of the Land concerned) and are usually selected at the proposal of, or in agreement with, the Federal Institute for School and Adult Education. In most cases, such teachers are staff with extensive experience and with skills in teaching, activity planning and school organisation and lesson planning. Consequently, many of these teachers are headteachers with experience of teaching training or who work as experts on study and district seminars.⁴²

Draft new or amended curricula can take over a year to produce and it usually takes three to four years to develop the curricula for all subjects for a type of school. Once completed, revised curricula are usually submitted to schools for a trial/test period.^42,38 Before any curriculum is implemented, there is usually also a procedure which ensures the participation of associations and representatives of parents, students and teachers.¹²  Once new curricula are ready for implementation, the Ministers of Education and Culture (of the various Länder) make the necessary legal and organisational changes concerning schools (e.g. the number of classroom tests, amendments to timetables and hours per subject etc.). These are included as new provisions in the Education and Examination Regulations (APO) or, alternatively, orders concerning them are issued to schools.⁴²

Once agreement has been reached on the formulation of a new curriculum and this is being implemented in schools (either for a provisional period or permanently), teacher training establishments are requested to provide the necessary training for teachers and, at this stage too, textbook publishers are requested to revise or completely rewrite the relevant texts.³⁸

Headteachers are responsible for ensuring that curricula are implemented. Mostly, curricula are general enough in their formulation so as to allow individual teachers the necessary pedagogical freedom. Subject teachers in individual educational establishments collectively determine a general teaching method for the curriculum/syllabus set by the Ministry and a format for assessment.³⁸

Curricula provide instructions for teachers' planning and practical work. They can be seen as guidelines on the goals, subject matter and methods involved in learning. It is the teacher's job to implement these instructions in the teaching and learning process, that is, in planning their teaching with individual students and in their actual teaching.  They are encouraged to take account of the individual characteristics of their students. Only the local teacher is in a position to decide how the curriculum guidelines can be implemented for his or her group of students.⁴²

A basic task for the teacher is to relate the performance targets stated in the curriculum to the specific characteristics of a class of students. It is his or her duty to cooperate with teachers of other subjects and determine common programmes for a class. Such 'in-school' curricula relate the general curriculum guidelines to the specific conditions applicable to each school. In addition to the characteristics of the students, a school's local conditions also play a decisive role. In the same way, important points in a school's programme and profile are defined by particular types of cooperation with outside partners, the school's traditions, extra teaching, study groups, full-day schooling, parent input, project days etc. The entire staff and subject teachers must make these internal arrangements. Subject teachers decide, for example, which of the state-approved textbooks are to be used, and teachers of the same subject working with parallel classes cooperate in planning teaching and in preparing classroom tests. Teachers working on different subjects with the same class will be involved in planning interdisciplinary teaching units and carrying out projects and similar activities.⁴²

Curriculum guidelines normally account for around 70 per cent of available school time; the remainder being available for the school's own planning work. From the teacher's perception, however, the situation is frequently different. Teachers often have the impression that they are over-stretched by the amount of subject matter and demands in curricula and consider that the latitude provided for them is much smaller than the 70:30 per cent ratio.⁴²

5.3.2 Compulsory subjects

Subjects
In most German states, the statutory national school curriculum generally comprises:

• German;
• mathematics;
• social studies;
• history;
• geography;
• biology;
• physics;
• chemistry;
• art;
• music;
• sport;
• religion; and
• modern foreign languages.⁴⁴

An agreement of the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder, concerning the types of schools and courses of education in compulsory, full-time lower secondary education, lays down a framework schedule which requires certain core subjects to be studied in every type of lower secondary school and course of education. Consequently:

• German;
• mathematics;
• one foreign language (usually English);
• natural and social sciences;
• music;
• art; and
• sport

at the very least, must be included among the compulsory or elective subjects offered.  However, the actual subjects offered and the subject emphasis differs dependent on school type (see summary table below). For example, a second foreign language is mandatory in Years 7-10 of the Gymnasium (students aged 12/13 - 15/16), whereas in other forms of lower secondary education, a second foreign language may be offered as an elective course. An introduction to the professional and working world is a compulsory component of every course of lower secondary education, whether provided as a special subject (Arbeitslehre, pre-vocational studies) or as part of the material covered in other subjects. Religious education is subject to the respective regulations in each Land. Accordingly, it is a compulsory subject in almost every one.¹⁷

Common educational standards for the mittlerer Schulabschluß
In December 2003, the Standing Conference of Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder reached an agreement concerning the introduction of common educational standards in German, mathematics and a student's first foreign language (English or French) for the mittlerer Schulabschluß (lower secondary qualification usually taken at the end of Year 10, aged around 16, see 6.3.2.). These standards began to be introduced in the 2004/05 school year and are binding for all Länder. A second set of standards in chemistry, physics and biology was introduced in the 2005/06 school year.¹⁶⁴  See section 5.3.1. 

Careers education
All students in the final year of compulsory full-time education generally receive some form of careers education/guidance. During this final year, students usually work through information material drawn up by the Federal Labour Office in Nuremberg, together with schools. Such classes are usually taken by careers advisers trained specially for students at Realschule, Hauptschule or Gymnasium.³⁵

Religious education
According to the Constitution (Grundgesetz), religious instruction should be part of the curriculum in public sector schools (except those which are non-denominational) and should be provided in accordance with the doctrine of the religious community concerned. These stipulations do not apply, however, in the Länder of Bremen and Berlin, where different regulations had already been specified by a Land law dating from 1 January 1949. Brandenburg also makes use of this legal provision, whilst conceding to churches and religious communities the right to teach students according to their denomination on school premises. The Grundgesetz further stipulates that parents have the right to decide whether their child should receive religious instruction. Once a child has reached the age of 12, the decision made by the parents must, according to the Law on the Religious Education of children ("Gesetz über die religiöse Kindererziehung") have the child's consent. From the age of 14, each child is free to decide whether to attend religious instruction, unless Land legislation makes other provision.  In circumstances where students do not participate  in religious education, they are usually taught 'ethics' as an alternative subject. ¹⁷   Religious education in Germany is either Protestant, Catholic or secular. The Land of Berlin has introduced the study of Islam as an option.⁵² 

Civics education
Civics education (Sozialkunde) is included in the curricula of all the German Länder as a subject in its own right and as part of other subjects. It is an obligatory subject throughout compulsory education and aims to provide students with an understanding of:

• the structural and institutional aspects of a democratic society at the local, regional and national level;
• the interrelationship of the various sectors of society; and
• the relevance of social/civic policy-making for the individual and society as a whole.

It is also intended to enable students to take effective actions and make decisions as responsible citizens and to be conscious of their rights and duties as a member of society, as a citizen of the state and as a member of the community. (German Unit of the EURYDICE information network on education in Europe, 2002).

In 2009, the Länder agreed measures to strengthen civics education in primary and secondary schools. The measures include:

• promoting a cross-curricular approach to teaching democratic education
• increasing opportunities for learning in out-of-school locations such as memorial sites and museums
• improving opportunities for pupils to influence decisions affecting school life, for example through participation in school committees.¹⁷¹

Sex and relationships education
Sexual, family and partnership education is compulsory in Germany during secondary education.  Parents may not remove children from sex education lessons, and in August 2009 Germany's highest court ruled that requiring children to attend sex education programmes does not infringe upon their rights to raise children according to their own values, or religious beliefs. However, schools must consult with parents and inform them of the school's policy and programme on sexual education and develop policies which reflect the parents' and children's wishes and take particular situations into consideration.¹⁷⁰

At secondary level the "sexual, family and partnership education" provided covers human growth and reproduction, and HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases. The topics are cross curricula and mandatory, however delivery is governed by the individual teacher and the specific school programme. ¹⁷⁰

Hauptschule, age 10 (or 12) - 15/16
Students study all statutory national curriculum subjects. In Nordrhein-Westfalen, for example, they study:

• German;
• social sciences - history/politics/geography;
• mathematics;
• natural sciences - biology, chemistry, physics;
• a modern foreign language - usually English;
• music/art/textile design;
• religious studies;
• and sport;
• plus Arbeitslehre - an element of pre-vocational training which is unique to the Hauptschule.³²

In some Länder students also study domestic science and economics.⁴⁴ Arbeitslehre aims to provide a basic knowledge of industry and the world of work, and to improve students' ability to select a suitable occupation. This subject is supplemented by information visits to commercial and industrial enterprises, by projects, and by two periods of work experience lasting several weeks.³² In the Hauptschule, science is usually taught as a general subject, rather than, as in the other types of school at this level, as specific scientific disciplines.³⁰

Realschule, student aged 10 (or 12) - 15/16
Students in the Realschule study all subjects of the national curriculum, but there is more emphasis on politics than on social studies.⁴⁴ In Nordrhein-Westfalen, for example, they study:

• German;
• social sciences (history, geography, politics);
• mathematics;
• natural sciences (biology, chemistry, physics);
• English;
• music/art/textile design;
• religious studies;
• and sport.³²

Gymnasium, age 10 (or 12) - 15/16
Students study all subjects, but at least two foreign languages, and there is more emphasis on politics than on social studies.⁴⁴

Mittelschule (combined Hauptschule and Realschule), students aged 10 (or 12) - 15/16
In the Mittelschule students generally study German, mathematics, physics or chemistry and options from technical studies, economics, social/home economics, music and sport.³²

Gesamtschule (comprehensive school), Sekundarschule and Regelschule (combined Hauptschule and Realschule)

Students study all subjects of the statutory national curriculum.³²

 

³⁰

Time allocation
An agreement of the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder on 'School Types and Curricula in Secondary I Education' determines the general and specific aspects of the curriculum in German lower secondary education and a general framework for time allocation per subject, per year or cycle.³⁸

Timetables ensure that subjects have a fixed proportion of hours in the general curriculum. They are binding on all schools of a given type and aim to ensure comparable educational conditions for all students.⁴²

As a rule, in lower secondary schools, students attend a total of 28 periods/lessons in compulsory subjects and compulsory options in Years 5 to 6 (ages 10/11 - 11/12), and 30 periods in Years 7 to 10 (ages 12/13 - 15/16), irrespective of school type. Lessons/periods usually last 45 minutes.¹² Teaching takes place over five or six days a week, Monday to Friday or Saturday, in the morning. As a rule, in Länder with a six-day school week, there are two Saturdays per month on which no lessons take place. The total number of weekly lessons remains the same with a five- or six-day week. With a five-day school week, teaching usually takes place on 188 days a year on average and, in the case of a six-day week, the number of days on which lessons are taught increases to around 208.^12,13

Courses in German, mathematics and the first foreign language take up three to five periods each per week; and natural and social sciences, two to three periods each. From Year 7 (age 12-13) onwards, another three to five periods per week are spent on a second foreign language as a compulsory or elective subject, depending on the type of school. The amount of time devoted to other compulsory or elective subjects (music, art, sport, pre-vocational studies) and religious education varies depending on the subjects and the type of school, the total weekly instruction being 28-30 periods.¹³

Homework
Homework in Years 5 to 10, ages 10 - 16 (compulsory full-time lower secondary level education in most Länder) takes up to two hours each evening.⁶⁶

5.3.3 Optional/elective subjects

In compulsory lower secondary education there is Wahlpflicht, that is, students must choose a number of elective subjects.³²

Generally, in lower secondary education, courses in German, mathematics and the first foreign language take up three to five periods each per week; and natural and social sciences, two to three periods each. From Year 7 (age 12/13) onwards, another three to five periods per week are spent on a second foreign language as a compulsory or elective subject, depending on the type of school. The amount of time devoted to other compulsory or elective subjects (music, art, sport, pre-vocational studies) and religious education varies depending on the subjects and the type of school, the total weekly instruction being 28-30 periods.¹⁷

Hauptschule
From Year 7 (age 12/13) of the Hauptschule, the teaching of compulsory subjects is complemented by Wahlpflichtunterricht (the teaching of compulsory subjects of the student's choice). In Years 7 and 8 students choose two lessons (1.5 hours) per week according to their interests. From Year 9 (age 14/15) onwards, Wahlpflichtunterricht is extended to three lessons (3 x 45 minutes) and, in particular, Arbeitslehre (pre-vocational studies) and natural sciences are offered as specific optional subjects, in which project-orientated methods have precedence. Year 10 (age 15/16) of the Hauptschule is offered in two forms:

• The A-Type, which concentrates mainly on the natural sciences and pre-vocational studies (Arbeitslehre). Students are also offered special opportunities to develop their practical abilities.
• The B-Type, which concentrates mainly on the subjects of German, mathematics and English.³²

Realschule
In the Realschule, compulsory additional subject options (Wahlpflichtfächer) are also introduced in Years 7 (age 12/13) and 8 (13/14 years) and comprise three lessons per week. A second modern foreign language is usually offered. Students generally choose between French or, in areas close to the Dutch border, Dutch. This selection of compulsory elective subjects continues in Years 9 and 10. The aim of these additional Wahlpflichtfächer (compulsory subjects of the student's choice) is to expand opportunities for learning. Each individual school offers several additional Wahlplichtfächer, examples include house-keeping, computer literacy etc.³²

Religious education
In theory, in all types of lower secondary school, religious education is optional, in the sense that students or their parents decide whether to receive religious instruction.  In cases where students do not participate in religious education, they are usually taught 'ethics' as an alternative subject.

5.3.4 Formulation of curriculum

Directives, syllabuses, areas of study and timetables are used in the formulation of the curriculum in Germany.  Directives, curricula and timetables that must be observed exist for all subjects and areas of study in all types of school in all 16 Länder. The directives mainly refer to the type of school. They define the main educational ideas to which a kind of school is committed, what is included in its educational programme and the teaching and learning principles governing its profile. The directives also provide statements on the organisation of education and teaching in the school and on performance assessment, homework, the use of staff and, where necessary, the main aspects of work in the individual school years. They also refer to the requirements for a system of organisation appropriate for the students (school life, cooperation between schools and their environment, the need for projects etc.). Lastly, they state the certificates which can be obtained in the respective types of school and on possible transfers between schools.⁴²

In each case, curricula make statements on individual subjects and areas of study. They cover:

• The tasks and goals involved in the subject or the area of study e.g. the qualifications to be acquired and basic aptitudes and skills.
• The teaching concept for a subject or area of study, e.g. in the form of information on elementary teaching and learning methods, the field covered by the subject and its main contents.
• The main subject matter, topics and related goals. In some cases curricula are supplemented by advice on teaching, with suggestions for schedules and methods, as well as for practical and organisational aspects of particular teaching sequences. In most curricula, these instructions concerning subject matter are structured according to the particular Year (e.g. Years 5/6, 7/8, 9/10).
• Checks on learning goals and encouragement and assessment of work. Here, for example, statements are made on the importance of oral or written work in the system, and on the assessment of individual or group work or other forms of work relating to a subject.
• Advice on work with curricula. This is mainly intended to encourage varied approaches to planning. In addition, some curricula give advice on documentation and aids for staff and students.⁴²

Directives, curricula and timetables, along with the legal and organisational rules, are binding on all schools. All 16 Länder have theoretically and structurally comparable directives, curricula and timetables, as well as comparable legal regulations for their schools.⁴²

Curricula provide instructions for teachers' planning and practical work. They can be seen as guidelines on the goals, subject matter and methods involved in learning. It is the teacher's job to implement these instructions in the teaching and learning process, that is, in planning an approach applicable to their students. They are encouraged to take account of the characteristics of individual students. Only the local teacher is in a position to determine exactly how curriculum guidelines can be implemented for his or her group of students.⁴²

A basic task for the teacher is to relate the performance targets stated in the curriculum to the specific characteristics of a class of students. It is his or her duty to cooperate with teachers of other subjects and work out common programmes for a class or year. Such 'in-school' curricula relate the general curriculum guidelines to the specific conditions applicable to each school. In addition to the characteristics of the students, a school's local conditions also play a decisive role. In the same way, important points in a school's programme and profile are defined by particular types of cooperation with outside partners, the school's traditions, extra teaching, study groups, full-day schooling, parent input, project days etc. The entire staff and subject teachers must make these internal arrangements. Subject teachers decide, for example, which of the state-approved textbooks are to be used, and teachers of the same subject working with parallel classes cooperate in planning teaching and preparing classroom tests. Teachers working on different subjects with the same class arewill be involved in planning interdisciplinary teaching units and carrying out projects and similar activities.⁴²

Curriculum guidelines normally acount for around 70 per cent of available school time; the remainder therefore being available for the school's own planning work. From the teacher's perception, however, the situation is frequently different. Teachers often have the impression that they are over-stretched by the amount of subject matter and demands in curricula and consider that the latitude provided for them is much smaller than this 70:30 per cent ratio.⁴²

In December 2003, the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the 16 Länder finalised an agreement regarding the introduction of common educational standards for the mittlerer Schulabschluß  (lower secondary qualification usually taken at the end of Year 10, aged around 16, see 6.3.2.). These standards began to be introduced in the 2004/05 school year and cover German, mathematics and the first foreign language taken by students (either English or French). They:

• set out the basic principles for each subject
• describe the specific competencies which students should have reached at a particular stage of their education
• promote systematic and integrated learning and
• outline expected levels of achievement.

Standards for the mittlerer Schulabschluß  in biology, chemistry and physics are also being introduced.¹⁶⁴ For further information, see section 5.3.1.

5.3.5 Key skills

The study of German, at least one modern foreign language and mathematics is regarded as key in the compulsory full-time lower secondary phase. Students are also expected to acquire key skills for future study, training or work. Information and communications technology are also given particular emphasis.¹⁸

5.3.6 Curriculum materials

All textbooks used in schools, regardless of the type of school or level, must be approved by the School Book Committees of the Länder Ministries of Education, Cultural Affairs and Science (according to the Resolution of the Standing Conference of Ministers of Education on the approval of textbooks). Each (Land) Ministry of Education, Cultural Affairs and Science regularly publishes a list of approved textbooks. (These lists also contain some of the legal and administrative provisions governing the free supply of teaching materials and the approval of textbooks, along with indications of the criteria to be used by those who are appointed by the Ministry of Education, Cultural Affairs and Science to assess textbooks.)²⁶ Approval of school textbooks aims to ensure that students do not learn from books which fail to meet the needs of the curriculum (or which contain racist thinking etc.).³⁵

Textbooks are generally produced by private, commercial publishers who, to a large extent, specialise in this type of work.²⁶ Directives and curricula are important reference points for school books.⁴²

Textbooks produced by private, commercial publishers are generally approved if:

• they are in line with the general principles of the Constitution (Grundgesetz) and the educational objectives set out in Education Acts;
• they are compatible with curricula and with educational research findings;
• the quality of the binding is appropriate and the price justifiable.²⁶

External criteria such as the number of pages are also taken into account for approval purposes, insofar as the size and format should be consistent with the content as laid down in the curriculum, the chosen approach to the subject, and the age of the students.²⁶

Textbooks for religious education are approved with the agreement of the church authorities.²⁶

School staff select textbooks for use in their schools from the wide range of approved titles.⁴² This selection is generally made at meetings of subject teachers or of the whole staff. In some cases, the approval of the schools' inspectorate is required; some Länder also have rules for consulting parents' and students' representatives.²⁶

To enable students, regardless of their income and social circumstances, to have access to all the teaching materials used in schools, all Länder have rules whereby teaching materials, and textbooks in particular, are provided free of charge. The costs are borne either by schools' funding bodies, such as local authorities, or by the Land itself. Generally, students attending state schools are given textbooks and other more expensive teaching materials (e.g. pocket calculators) on loan, whereas expendable items such as exercise books and pencils and other educational materials (e.g. drawing instruments, materials for needlework and handicrafts) are provided by parents and students. However, the rules vary from one Land to another and, in rare cases, students in publicly-funded schools may be expected to pay a minor contribution towards textbook costs. Provisions for the supply of free teaching materials to students in private schools vary according to the Land. In some Länder students/parents are required to contribute to the total cost of teaching materials by paying for certain materials themselves. Some Länder do not operate a loan system but provide grants to purchase materials; these grants may depend on parents' income or the type of school attended.^26,35

The prices of textbooks are controlled at a 'reasonable' level. If a price is raised, approval of the textbook concerned may be withdrawn. In addition, competition between textbook publishers helps to ensure that prices remain reasonably low.²⁶

In most types of school, textbooks are still the decisive instruments in planning and the textbooks in use frequently appear to have a greater influence than the appropriate curricula on the standards and breakdown of subject matter and on the sequence planning of course content.⁴²

Other materials
There is a national Institute for Films and Visual Aids (run by the 16 Länder), which produces all kinds of support materials for schools, including films, videos, and colour slide series. In addition, most of the Länder also have Land central agencies for the distribution of audiovisual aids to schools. Some Länder also have central Land agencies for computer education, which test commercially-produced computer software and make recommendations for its use in schools.³¹

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