INCA Education around the world
Germany : Curricula (age 3-19)
5.4.1 Control
5.4.2 Compulsory subjects
5.4.3 Optional/elective subjects
5.4.4 Formulation of curriculum
5.4.5 Key skills
5.4.6 Curriculum materials
5.4 Fourth phase: Upper secondary, age 15/16 - 18/19
[see 3.2.4]
5.4.1 Control
General academic curricula in upper secondary education
In Germany, compulsory curricula/syllabuses exist for all subjects, as do areas of study in all types of (full- and part-time) compulsory school.42
The Ministers of Education and Culture in the Länder are responsible for the development and implementation of curricula for the subjects taught at the different types and levels of school. At the national level, the Federal (National) Institute for School and Adult Education monitors the development of curricula nationwide.12,42
The organisation of curriculum work and supervision of its theoretical side on the national level are legally the responsibility of the Curriculum Development Department of the Federal (National) Institute for School and Adult Education. The Department consists of a main section responsible for education and teaching, educational research and school counselling and six specialised sections which cover the main subjects taught in schools (German; foreign languages; mathematics/science; social sciences/history/religion; art/music; sport). In addition, three coordination sections (primary, lower secondary, and upper secondary) are responsible for the schools in the corresponding category. There is also a 'special teaching' section which deals with curricula for Sonderschulen and a section which is exclusively concerned with vocational training. Depending on the type of school and the volume of curriculum development work, the sections participate in all phases of development and revision work. Since its creation in 1978, the Institute has become the central agency for curriculum development activities and continued/further teacher training.42
At the regional (Land) level, curricula are usually developed in special curriculum planning commissions (committees) by teachers (including headteachers) who are assisted by other specialists such as representatives of the school (administrative) authorities and school research institutes in the appropriate Land and, to a lesser extent, by subject specialists from institutions of higher education.12,38 Typical curriculum commission composition would be:
- six to eight teachers of the particular subject and from the type of school concerned;
- a representative of the school inspectorate, who is frequently the Chairman of the curriculum commission;
- a member of the Federal Institute for School and Adult Education as a supervisor.42
Land curriculum committees usually meet once a month and curricula are normally developed in parallel for all subjects in a particular type of school. The process of preparing the general teaching directives for a specific type of school takes place while the curricula are being developed.42
Members do not usually receive any intensive, specific training for their curriculum committee activities. Their most important task is to incorporate the specific, practical conditions of schools, their wishes and their concern for certain provisions in the curriculum development process - by providing guidance and proposing adjustments.42
Teachers on curriculum committees are given four hours per week off from teaching for these activities. Committee members are appointed by the Minister of Education and Culture (of the Land concerned) and are usually selected at the proposal of, or in agreement with, the Federal Institute for School and Adult Education. In most cases, such teachers are staff with thorough, practical experience and with skills in teaching, activity planning and the organisation of school and lessons. Accordingly, many of these teachers are headteachers, have experience of teaching training or work as experts on study and district seminars.42
Draft new or amended curricula can take over a year to produce and it usually takes three to four years to develop the curricula for all subjects for a type of school. Once they are completed, the curricula are usually submitted to schools for a test/trial period.42,38 Before any curriculum is implemented, there is also usually a procedure which assures the participation of associations and representatives of parents, students and teachers.12 Once new curricula are ready for implementation, the Ministers of Education and Culture (of the various Länder) make the necessary legal and organisational changes concerning schools (e.g. the number of classroom tests, amendments to timetables and hours per subject etc.). These are included as new provisions in the Education and Examination Regulations (APO) or, alternatively, orders concerning them are issued to schools.42
Once agreement has been reached on the formulation of a new curriculum and this is being implemented in schools (either for a provisional period or permanently), teacher training establishments are requested to provide the necessary training for teachers and, at this stage too, textbook publishers are requested to revise or completely rewrite the relevant texts.38
Headteachers are responsible for ensuring that curricula are implemented. Mostly, curricula are general enough in their formulation so as to allow individual teachers the necessary pedagogical freedom. Subject teachers in individual educational establishments collectively determine a general teaching method for the curriculum/syllabus set by the Ministry and a format for assessment.38
Curricula provide instructions for teachers' planning and practical work. They can be seen as guidelines on the goals, subject matter and methods involved in learning. It is the teacher's job to implement these instructions in the teaching and learning process, that is to say in the planning approach designed for their students and in teaching practice. They are thus urged to take into account the actual characteristics of their students. Only the local teacher can therefore justifiably decide how the curriculum guidelines can be implemented for his or her group of students.42
A basic task for the teacher is to relate the performance targets stated in the curriculum to the specific characteristics of a class of students. It is therefore his/her duty to cooperate with the teachers of other subjects and work out common programmes for a class or year. Such 'in-school' curricula relate the general curriculum guidelines to the specific conditions applicable to each school. In addition to the characteristics of the students, a school's local conditions also play a decisive role. In the same way, important points in a school's programme and profile are defined by particular types of cooperation with outside partners, the school's traditions, extra teaching, study groups, full-day schooling, parent input, project days etc. The entire staff and subject teachers must make these internal arrangements. Subject teachers decide, for example, which of the state-approved textbooks are to be used, and teachers of the same subject working with parallel classes cooperate, for example, in the planning of teaching and the preparation of classroom tests. Teachers working on different subjects with the same class will be involved in planning interdisciplinary teaching units and carrying out projects and similar activities.42
It is assumed that the curriculum guidelines account for only about 70 per cent of available school time; the remainder therefore being available for the school's own planning work. From the teacher's perception, however, the situation is frequently different. Teachers often have the impression that they are over-stretched by the amount of subject matter and demands in curricula and consider that the latitude provided for them is much smaller than the 70:30 per cent ratio/proportion.42
Vocational curricula in upper secondary education
Vocational education in schools is the exclusive responsibility of the Länder, while the Federal Government is responsible for in-company vocational training. The framework curricula for career-related courses at Berufsschulen and the training regulations for vocational training in the various state-recognised occupations are worked out jointly by federal and Länder authorities in a coordinated procedure which involves the agreement of employers and trade unions.12
5.4.2 Compulsory subjects
Subjects
Compulsory subjects studied at upper secondary level depend on school type.44 Descriptions of school types are provided in the Glossary.
Gymnasiale Oberstufe and Abitur
16- to 19-year-olds in the gymnasiale Oberstufe are required to study certain subjects or subject combinations, but also now have extensive scope for individual specialisation, with a wider range of subjects to choose from. Related subjects are grouped into three main areas:
- languages, literature and the arts (for example, German, foreign languages, fine art, music);
- social sciences (for example, history, geography, philosophy, social studies/politics/civics education, economics); and
- mathematics, natural sciences and technology (for example, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology).13
Every student is required to study subjects from each of the above three areas right up to the completion of the upper level of the Gymnasium, including the Abitur examination. Religious education (see 5.3.2 and 5.3.3) and sport are also compulsory. In addition, in accordance with an agreement of the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder, German, a foreign language and mathematics (regarded as 'key skills') must be taken at the upper level of the Gymnasium. Results from these three subjects must also be taken into account in the certificate of the general higher education entrance qualification (Allgemeine Hochschulreife). In certain instances, and to a limited extent, German, a foreign language and mathematics may be substituted by other subjects provided that the content is interrelated.44,13
Courses in the gymnasiale Oberstufe for the Abitur are categorised as Grundkurse (basic courses) or Leistungskurse (advanced courses):
- Grundkurse (usually 3 teaching hours per subject, per week) are designed to ensure that all students acquire a broad general education, and up to two-thirds of the courses are at the basic level.
- Leitungskurse (5 or 6 teaching hours per subject, per week) are designed to offer additional, intensified knowledge and to serve as an in-depth introduction to academic study. Students are required to choose at least two advanced courses, one of which must be either German, continuation of a foreign language, mathematics, or a natural science. If German is the first advanced course, mathematics or a foreign language must be included among the four subjects taken in the Abitur examination. New subjects offered at the upper level of the Gymnasium, among them foreign languages and vocational subjects, may be offered as the second advanced course. Some Länder restrict the choice of advanced courses to certain subject combinations.12
In an article in NASSP Bulletin (Vol No 76 (548), 30-46 (1992), 'A Status Report: Three nations' curricula: What can we learn from them?', the author explains the choices made for Abitur courses at upper secondary level as follows:
In Abitur courses, specialised discrete subjects are studied at an advanced level. Students can choose, almost creating their own programme. However, the student's programme almost always consists of two 'intensive' subjects (each studied for five to six hours per week) and at least five 'less intensive' subjects (each studied for two to three hours per week). The examination at the end of the programme concentrates on the two intensive subjects and two of the less intensive subjects. This student discretion has virtually abolished weekly class schedules in upper secondary education in Germany. However, irrespective of this freedom, students must 'mix and balance' their major and minor subjects so as not to become too specialised; the goal is the well-rounded individual.54
Vocational schools
Subjects studied (compulsory or elective) in the various types of vocational school which exist at the upper secondary level depend on the course being studied. The courses available and, consequently, the subjects studied vary considerably.
In the Berufsschule (part-time vocational school) for example, 60 per cent of classes normally consist of specialised teaching directly related to and supplementing the practical in-company training which students are receiving with a theoretical background. The remainder of teaching time is usually taken up with general subjects such as German, social sciences, economics, sport, etc. A foreign language is also often taught, see below.35
In Fachoberschulen, which specialise in subject areas such as engineering, economics, farming, the welfare system, and design, students are also required to study German, social sciences, mathematics, natural sciences, one foreign language and sport .35,17
Time allocation
Timetables ensure that subjects have a fixed proportion of hours in the general curriculum. They are binding on all schools of a given type and ensure comparable educational conditions for all students.42
Traditional timetables are, however, increasingly criticised for giving too little scope for interdisciplinary learning processes and for blocking the possibilities of developing 'modern' methods of learning, precisely because they stick to the traditional subject system.42
Gymnasiale Oberstufe/Abitur
At upper secondary level, in courses leading to the Abitur (higher education entrance examination), the student's programme almost always consists of two Leistungskurse (advanced) subjects which are each studied for five to six hours per week, and at least five Grundkurse (basic) subjects, each studied for two to three hours per week. Student discretion in choice of courses for the Abitur has virtually abolished weekly class schedules in upper secondary education in Germany.66 There are however, generally around 30 weekly periods for these students in the gymnasiale Oberstufe, of which around 20 are spent on compulsory course subjects and 10 on optional subjects.17
Vocational schools
In the two-year Berufsfachschulen (Berufskollegs in Baden-Württemberg and Saxony) a student's weekly timetable amounts to at least 30 periods (x 45 minutes) over each year of the two-year course.12,17
About a third of total teaching time at the Berufsschule is taken up with general education subjects, namely German, social studies, economics, religion and sport. Foreign languages are included in vocational education when they are likely to be of importance in the student's future occupation. In vocational training in the dual system, where initial vocational training takes place both in a company and in the Berufsschule, at least 12 weekly periods of teaching must take place in the Berufsschule; teaching may also be received in blocks (provided that the block number of teaching periods provided in the Berufsschule amounts to what would normally have been received each week).12,17
In Fachoberschulen, where students undertake practical, on-the-job training for four days a week in Year 11 (age 16-17), they must also spend at least eight periods per week in class. In Year 12, students must receive at least 30 periods of general and specialist instruction per week (each lasts around 45 minutes). (18 to 20 periods a week are usually taken up by classes in general subjects - German, social studies, mathematics, natural sciences, a foreign language and sport.)13
Homework in (compulsory) upper secondary education averages two to two-and-a-half hours per day.54
5.4.3 Optional/elective subjects
See 5.4.2.
Vocational schools
Subjects studied (compulsory or elective) in the various types of vocational school which exist at the upper secondary level depend on the course being studied. The courses available and, consequently, the subjects studied vary considerably. See 5.4.2 for further information.
5.4.4 Formulation of curriculum
Directives, syllabuses, areas of study and timetables are used in the formulation of the curriculum in Germany.
Directives, curricula and timetables that must be observed exist for all subjects and areas of study in all types of school in all 16 Länder. The directives mainly refer to the type of school. They define the main educational ideas to which a kind of school is committed, what is included in its educational programme and the teaching and learning principles governing its profile. The directives also provide statements on the organisation of education and teaching in the school and on performance assessment, homework, the use of staff and, where necessary, the main aspects of work in the individual school years. They also refer to the requirements for an organisation system designed for the students (school life, cooperation between schools and their environment, the need for projects etc.). Lastly, they state the certificates which can be obtained in the respective types of school and on possible transfers between schools.42
In each case, the curricula make statements on the individual subjects and areas of study. They basically cover:
- The tasks and goals involved in the subject or the area of study e.g. the qualifications to be acquired and basic aptitudes and skills.
- The teaching concept for a subject or area of study, e.g. in the form of information on elementary teaching and learning methods, the field covered by the subject and its main contents.
- The main subject matter, topics and related goals. In some cases the curricula are supplemented by advice on teaching, with suggestions for schedules and methods, as well as for practical and organisational aspects of particular teaching sequences. In most curricula, these instructions concerning subject matter are structured according to the particular Year (e.g. Years 5/6, 7/8, 9/10).
- Checks on learning goals and encouragement and assessment of work. Here, for example, statements are made on the importance of oral or written work in the system, and on the assessment of individual or group work or other forms of work relating to a subject.
- Advice on work with curricula. This is mainly intended to encourage varying planning approaches. In addition, some curricula give advice on documentation and aids for staff and students.42
Directives, curricula and timetables, along with the legal and organisational rules, are binding on all schools. All 16 Länder have theoretically and structurally comparable directives, curricula and timetables, as well as comparable legal regulations for their schools.42
Curricula provide instructions for teachers' planning and practical work. They can be seen as guidelines on the goals, subject matter and methods involved in learning. It is the teacher's job to implement these instructions in the teaching and learning process, that is to say in the planning approach designed for their students and in teaching practice. They are thus urged to take into account the actual characteristics of their students. Only the local teacher can therefore justifiably decide how the curriculum guidelines can be implemented for his or her group of students.42
A basic task for the teacher is to relate the performance targets stated in the curriculum to the specific characteristics of a class of students. It is therefore his/her duty to cooperate with the teachers of other subjects and work out common programmes for a class or year. Such 'in-school' curricula relate the general curriculum guidelines to the specific conditions applicable to each school. In addition to the characteristics of the students, a school's local conditions also play a decisive role. In the same way, important points in a school's programme and profile are defined by particular types of cooperation with outside partners, the school's traditions, extra teaching, study groups, full-day schooling, parent input, project days etc. The entire staff and subject teachers must make these internal arrangements. Subject teachers decide, for example, which of the state-approved textbooks are to be used, and teachers of the same subject working with parallel classes cooperate, for example, in the planning of teaching and the preparation of classroom tests. Teachers working on different subjects with the same class will be involved in planning interdisciplinary teaching units and carrying out projects and similar activities.42
It is assumed that the curriculum guidelines account for only about 70 per cent of available school time; the remainder therefore being available for the school's own planning work. From the teacher's perception, however, the situation is frequently different. Teachers often have the impression that they are over-stretched by the amount of subject matter and demands in curricula and consider that the latitude provided for them is much smaller than the 70:30 per cent ratio/proportion.42
5.4.5 Key skills
In vocational or general/academic upper secondary education, schools are expected to assist students in acquiring the following key skills:
- an ability to express themselves (communicate effectively);
- an ability to control their own learning (that is to say, to study, and also to plan, implement, control their work and obtain information independently);
- the ability to work effectively as part of a team;
- the ability to make decisions;
- an awareness of their responsibilities;
- an ability and a readiness to further develop/continue their learning; and
- an ability to recognise their strengths and weaknesses.18
Abitur
In addition, on the basis of a decision of the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder, the German language, a foreign language and mathematics are regarded as key skills which must be studied at the upper level of the Gymnasium in all Abitur courses.44,17
5.4.6 Curriculum materials
All textbooks used in schools, regardless of the type of school or level, must be approved by the School Book Committees of the Länder Ministries of Education, Cultural Affairs and Science (according to the Resolution of the Standing Conference of Ministers of Education on the approval of textbooks). Each (Land) Ministry of Education, Cultural Affairs and Science regularly publishes a list of approved textbooks. (These lists also contain some of the legal and administrative provisions governing the free supply of teaching materials and the approval of textbooks, along with indications of the criteria to be used by those who are appointed by the Ministry of Education, Cultural Affairs and Science to assess textbooks.)26 Approval of school textbooks aims to ensure that students do not learn from books which fail to meet the needs of the curriculum (or which contain racist thinking etc.).35
Textbooks are generally produced by private, commercial publishers who, to a large extent, specialise in this type of work.26Directives and curricula are important reference points for school books.42
Textbooks produced by private, commercial publishers are generally approved if:
- they are in line with the general principles of the Grundgesetz and the educational objectives set out in Education Acts;
- they are compatible with the syllabuses and with educational research findings;
- the quality of the binding is appropriate and the price justifiable.26
External criteria such as the number of pages are also taken into account for approval purposes, insofar as the size and format should be consistent with the contentas laid down in the curriculum, the chosen approach to the subject, and the age of the students.26
Textbooks for religious education are approved with the agreement of the church authorities.26
The school staff select textbooks for use in their schools from the wide range of approved titles.42 This selection is generally made at meetings of subject teachers or of the whole staff. In some cases, the approval of the schools' inspectorate is required; some Länder also have rules for consulting parents' and students' representatives.26
To enable students, regardless of their income and social circumstances, to have access to all the teaching materials used in schools, all the Länder have rules whereby teaching materials, and textbooks in particular, are provided free of charge. The costs are borne either by schools' providing (funding) bodies, such as local authorities, or by the Land itself. Generally speaking, students attending state schools are given textbooks and other more expensive teaching materials (e.g. pocket calculators) on loan, whereas expendable items such as exercise books and pencils and other educational materials (e.g. drawing instruments, materials for needlework and handicrafts) must be provided by parents and students. However, the rules vary from one Land to another (and, in rare cases, students in publicly-funded schools may be expected to pay a minor contribution towards textbook costs). Provisions for the supply of free teaching materials to students in private schools vary according to the Land. In some Länder students/parents are required to contribute to the total cost of teaching materials by paying for certain materials themselves. Some Länder do not operate a loan system but provide grants to purchase materials; these grants may depend on parents' income or the type of school attended.26,35
The prices of textbooks are controlled at a 'reasonable' level. If a price is raised, approval of the textbook concerned may be withdrawn. In addition, competition between textbook publishers helps to ensure that prices remain reasonably low.26
In most types of school, textbooks are still the decisive instruments in planning and the textbooks in use frequently appear to have a greater influence than the appropriate curricula on the standards and breakdown of subject matter and on the sequence planning of course content.42
Other materials
There is a national Institute for Films and Visual Aids (run by the 16 Länder), which produces all kinds of support materials for schools, including films, videos, and colour slide series. In addition, most of the Länder also have Land central agencies for the distribution of audiovisual aids to schools. Some Länder also have central Land agencies for computer education, which test commercially-produced computer software and make recommendations for its use in schools.31
